Grammar语法的定义.docx
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Grammar语法的定义.docx
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Grammar语法的定义
Grammar
FortherulesoftheEnglishlanguage,seeEnglishgrammar.Forthetopicinmathematics,logic,andtheoreticalcomputerscience,seeFormalgrammar.
NottobeconfusedwithGrammerorKrammer.
Linguistics
Theoreticallinguistics
Cognitivelinguistics
Generativelinguistics
Functionaltheoriesofgrammar
Quantitativelinguistics
Phonology·Morphology·Morphophonology·Syntax·Lexis·Semantics·Pragmatics·Graphemics·Orthography·Semiotics
Descriptivelinguistics
Anthropologicallinguistics
Comparativelinguistics
Historicallinguistics
Etymology·Graphetics·Phonetics·Sociolinguistics
Appliedand
experimentallinguistics
Computationallinguistics
Evolutionarylinguistics
Forensiclinguistics
Internetlinguistics
Languageacquisition
Languageassessment
Languagedevelopment
Languageeducation
Linguisticanthropology
Neurolinguistics
Psycholinguistics
Second-languageacquisition
Relatedarticles
Historyoflinguistics
Linguisticprescription
Listoflinguists
Listofunsolvedproblemsinlinguistics
Portal
v·t·e
Inlinguistics,grammaristhesetofstructuralrulesthatgovernsthecompositionofclauses,phrases,andwordsinanygivennaturallanguage.Thetermrefersalsotothestudyofsuchrules,andthisfieldincludesmorphology,syntax,andphonology,oftencomplementedbyphonetics,semantics,andpragmatics.Linguistsdonotnormallyusethetermtorefertoorthographicalrules,althoughusagebooksandstyleguidesthatcallthemselvesgrammarsmayalsorefertospellingandpunctuation.[citationneeded]
Contents[hide]
1Useoftheterm
2Etymology
3History
4Developmentofgrammars
5Grammarframeworks
6Education
7Seealso
8Notesandreferences
9Externallinks
[edit]UseofthetermThetermgrammarisoftenusedbynon-linguistswithaverybroadmeaning.AsJeremyButterfieldputsit:
"GrammarisoftenagenericwayofreferringtoanyaspectofEnglishthatpeopleobjectto."[1]However,linguistsuseitinamuchmorespecificsense.Speakersofalanguagehaveintheirheadsasetofrules[2]forusingthatlanguage.Thisisagrammar,and—atleastinthecaseofone'snativelanguage—thevastmajorityoftheinformationinitisacquirednotbyconsciousstudyorinstruction,butbyobservingotherspeakers;muchofthisworkisdoneduringinfancy.Languagelearninglaterinlife,ofcourse,mayinvolveagreaterdegreeofexplicitinstruction.[3]
Theterm"grammar"canalsobeusedtodescribetherulesthatgovernthelinguisticbehaviourofagroupofspeakers.Theterm"Englishgrammar",therefore,mayhaveseveralmeanings.ItmayrefertothewholeofEnglishgrammar—thatis,tothegrammarsofallthespeakersofthelanguage—inwhichcase,thetermencompassesagreatdealofvariation.[4]Alternatively,itmayreferonlytowhatiscommontothegrammarsofall,orofthevastmajorityofEnglishspeakers(suchassubject–verb–objectwordorderinsimpledeclarativesentences).Oritmayrefertotherulesofaparticular,relativelywell-definedvarietyofEnglish(suchasStandardEnglish).
"AnEnglishgrammar"isaspecificdescription,studyoranalysisofsuchrules.Areferencebookdescribingthegrammarofalanguageiscalleda"referencegrammar"orsimply"agrammar."Afullyexplicitgrammarthatexhaustivelydescribesthegrammaticalconstructionsofalanguageiscalledadescriptivegrammar.Thiskindoflinguisticdescriptioncontrastswithlinguisticprescription,anattempttodiscourageorsuppresssomegrammaticalconstructions,whilepromotingothers.Forexample,prepositionstrandingoccurswidelyinGermaniclanguagesandhasalonghistoryinEnglish.JohnDryden,however,objectedtoit(withoutexplanation),[5]leadingotherEnglishspeakerstoavoidtheconstructionanddiscourageitsuse.[6]
[edit]EtymologyFurtherinformation:
Grapheme
ThewordgrammarderivesfromGreekγραμματικὴτέχνη(grammatikētechnē),whichmeans"artofletters",fromγράμμα(gramma),"letter",itselffromγράφειν(graphein),"todraw,towrite".[7]
[edit]HistoryFurtherinformation:
Historyoflinguistics
ThefirstsystematicgrammarsoriginatedinIronAgeIndia,withYaska(6thc.BC),Pāṇini(4thc.BC)andhiscommentatorsPingala(ca.200BC),Katyayana,andPatanjali(2ndc.BC).IntheWest,grammaremergedasadisciplineinHellenismfromthe3rdc.BCforwardwithauthorslikeRhyanusandAristarchusofSamothrace,theoldestextantworkbeingtheArtofGrammar(ΤέχνηΓραμματική),attributedtoDionysiusThrax(ca.100BC).LatingrammardevelopedbyfollowingGreekmodelsfromthe1stcenturyBC,duetotheworkofauthorssuchasOrbiliusPupillus,RemmiusPalaemon,MarcusValeriusProbus,VerriusFlaccus,andAemiliusAsper.
TolkāppiyamistheearliestTamilgrammar;ithasbeendatedvariouslybetween1stCEand10thCE.
AgrammarofIrishoriginatedinthe7thcenturywiththeAuraiceptnan-Éces.
ArabicgrammaremergedwithAbual-Aswadal-Du'alifromthe7thcenturywhoin-turnwastaughtthedisciplinebyAliibnAbitalib,thefourthhistoricalcaliphofIslamandfirstImamforShi'iMuslims.
ThefirsttreatisesonHebrewgrammarappearedintheHighMiddleAges,inthecontextofMishnah(exegesisoftheHebrewBible).TheKaraitetraditionoriginatedinAbbasidBaghdad.TheDiqduq(10thcentury)isoneoftheearliestgrammaticalcommentariesontheHebrewBible.[8]IbnBaruninthe12thcenturycomparestheHebrewlanguagewithArabicintheIslamicgrammaticaltradition.[9]
Belongingtothetriviumofthesevenliberalarts,grammarwastaughtasacoredisciplinethroughouttheMiddleAges,followingtheinfluenceofauthorsfromLateAntiquity,suchasPriscian.TreatmentofvernacularsbegangraduallyduringtheHighMiddleAges,withisolatedworkssuchastheFirstGrammaticalTreatise,butbecameinfluentialonlyintheRenaissanceandBaroqueperiods.In1486,AntoniodeNebrijapublishedLasintroducionesLatinascontrapuestoelromancealLatin,andthefirstSpanishgrammar,Gramáticadelalenguacastellana,in1492.Duringthe16thcenturyItalianRenaissance,theQuestionedellalinguawasthediscussiononthestatusandidealformoftheItalianlanguage,initiatedbyDante'sdevulgarieloquentia(PietroBembo,ProsedellavolgarlinguaVenice1525).ThefirstgrammarofSlovenelanguagewaswrittenin1584byAdamBohorič.
Grammarsofnon-EuropeanlanguagesbegantobecompiledforthepurposesofevangelizationandBibletranslationfromthe16thcenturyonward,suchasGrammaticaoArtedelaLenguaGeneraldelosIndiosdelosReynosdelPerú(1560),andaQuechuagrammarbyFrayDomingodeSantoTomás.
In1643thereappearedIvanUzhevych'sGrammaticasclavonicaand,in1762,theShortIntroductiontoEnglishGrammarofRobertLowthwasalsopublished.TheGrammatisch-KritischesWörterbuchderhochdeutschenMundart,aHighGermangrammarinfivevolumesbyJohannChristophAdelung,appearedasearlyas1774.
Fromthelatterpartofthe18thcentury,grammarcametobeunderstoodasasubfieldoftheemergingdisciplineofmodernlinguistics.TheSerbiangrammarbyVukStefanovićKaradžićarrivedin1814,whiletheDeutscheGrammatikoftheBrothersGrimmwasfirstpublishedin1818.TheComparativeGrammarofFranzBopp,thestartingpointofmoderncomparativelinguistics,cameoutin1833.
[edit]DevelopmentofgrammarsMainarticle:
Historicallinguistics
Grammarsevolvethroughusageandalsoduetoseparationsofthehumanpopulation.Withtheadventofwrittenrepresentations,formalrulesaboutlanguageusagetendtoappearalso.Formalgrammarsarecodificationsofusagethataredevelopedbyrepeateddocumentationovertime,andbyobservationaswell.Astherulesbecomeestablishedanddeveloped,theprescriptiveconceptofgrammaticalcorrectnesscanarise.Thisoftencreatesadiscrepancybetweencontemporaryusageandthatwhichhasbeenaccepted,overtime,asbeingcorrect.Linguiststendtoviewprescriptivegrammarsashavinglittlejustificationbeyondtheirauthors'aesthetictastes,althoughstyleguidesmaygiveusefuladviceaboutstandardlanguageemployment,basedondescriptionsofusageincontemporarywritingsofthesamelanguage.Linguisticprescriptionsalsoformpartoftheexplanationforvariationinspeech,particularlyvariationinthespeechofanindividualspeaker(anexplanation,forexample,forwhysomepeoplesay,"Ididn'tdonothing";somesay,"Ididn'tdoanything";andsomesayoneortheotherdependingonsocialcontext).
Theformalstudyofgrammarisanimportantpartofeducationforchildrenfromayoungagethroughadvancedlearning,thoughtherulestaughtinschoolsarenota"grammar"inthesensemostlinguistsusetheterm,particularlyastheyareoftenprescriptiveratherthandescriptive.
Constructedlanguages(alsocalledplannedlanguagesorconlangs)aremorecommoninthemodernday.Manyhavebeendesignedtoaidhumancommunication(forexample,naturalisticInterlingua,schematicEsperanto,andthehighlylogic-compatibleartificiallanguageLojban).Eachoftheselanguageshasitsowngrammar.
Syntaxreferstolinguisticstructureabovethewordlevel(e.g.howsentencesareformed)—thoughwithouttakingintoaccountintonation,whichisthedomainofphonology.Morphology,bycontrast,referstostructureatandbelowthewordlevel(e.g.howcompoundwordsareformed),butabovethelevelofindividualsounds,which,likeintonation,areinthedomainofphonology.[10]Noclearlinecanbedrawn,however,betweensyntaxandmorphology.Analyticlanguagesusesyntaxtoconveyinformationthatisencodedviainflectioninsyntheticlanguages.Inotherwords,wordorderisnotsignificantandmorphologyishighlysignificantinapurelysyntheticl
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