托福口语背景知识architecture2.docx
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托福口语背景知识architecture2.docx
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托福口语背景知识architecture2
Architecture
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Thisarticleisaboutbuildingarchitecture.Forotheruses,seeArchitecture(disambiguation).
SectionandelevationofthedomeofFlorenceCathedral.
Brunelleschi,inthebuildingofthedome,notonlytransformedthecathedralandthecityofFlorence,butalsotheroleandstatusofthearchitect.
Thetermarchitecture(fromGreekαρχιτεκτονική,architektonike)canrefertoaprocess,aprofessionordocumentation.
Asaprocess,architectureistheactivityofdesigningandconstructingbuildingsandotherphysicalstructuresbyapersonoracomputer,primarilytoprovideshelter.Awiderdefinitionoftenincludesthedesignofthetotalbuiltenvironment,fromthemacrolevelofhowabuildingintegrateswithitssurroundinglandscape(seetownplanning,urbandesign,andlandscapearchitecture)tothemicrolevelofarchitecturalorconstructiondetailsand,sometimes,furniture.Widerstill,architectureistheactivityofdesigninganykindofsystem.
Asaprofession,architectureistheroleofthosepersonsormachinesprovidingarchitecturalservices.
Asdocumentation,usuallybasedondrawings,architecturedefinesthestructureand/orbehaviorofabuildingoranyotherkindofsystemthatistobeorhasbeenconstructed.
Architectshaveastheirprimaryobjectprovidingforthespatialandshelterneedsofpeopleingroupsofsomekind(families,schools,churches,businesses,etc.)bythecreativeorganisationofmaterialsandcomponentsinaland-orcity-scape,dealingwithmass,space,form,volume,texture,structure,light,shadow,materials,program,andpragmaticelementssuchascost,constructionlimitationsandtechnology,toachieveanendwhichisfunctional,economical,practicalandoftenwithartisticandaestheticaspects.Thisdistinguishesarchitecturefromengineeringdesign,whichhasasitsprimaryobjectthecreativemanipulationofmaterialsandformsusingmathematicalandscientificprinciples.
Separatefromthedesignprocess,architectureisalsoexperienced[1]throughthesenses,whichthereforegivesrisetoaural,[2]visual,olfactory,[3]andtactile[4]architecture.Aspeoplemovethroughaspace,architectureisexperiencedasatimesequence.[5]Eventhoughourcultureconsidersarchitecturetobeavisualexperience,theothersensesplayaroleinhowweexperiencebothnaturalandbuiltenvironments.Attitudestowardsthesensesdependonculture.[6]Thedesignprocessandthesensoryexperienceofaspacearedistinctlyseparateviews,eachwithitsownlanguageandassumptions.
Architecturalworksareperceivedasculturalandpoliticalsymbolsandworksofart.Historicalcivilizationsareoftenknownprimarilythroughtheirarchitecturalachievements.SuchbuildingsasthepyramidsofEgyptandtheRomanColosseumareculturalsymbols,andareanimportantlinkinpublicconsciousness,evenwhenscholarshavediscoveredmuchaboutapastcivilizationthroughothermeans.Cities,regionsandculturescontinuetoidentifythemselveswith(andareknownby)theirarchitecturalmonuments.[7]
Contents
[hide]
∙1Etymologyandapplicationoftheterm
∙2TheoryofArchitecture
o2.1Historictreatises
o2.2Modernconceptsofarchitecture
∙3History
o3.1Originsandtheancientworld
o3.2TheMedievalbuilder
o3.3Renaissanceandthearchitect
o3.4Modernismandreactionofarchitecture
o3.5Architecturetoday
∙4Seealso
∙5Notes
∙6References
∙7Externallinks
Etymologyandapplicationoftheterm
Theword"architecture"comesfromtheLatinarchitecturaandthatfromGreekαρχιτέκτων(architectu),"masterbuilder",fromthecombinationofαρχι-(archi-),"chief"or"leader"andτέκτων(tekton),a"builder"or"carpenter".[8][9]Whiletheprimaryapplicationoftheword"architecture"pertainstothebuiltenvironment,byextension,thetermhascometodenotetheartanddisciplineofcreatinganactual(orinferringanimpliedorapparent)planofanycomplexobjectorsystem.Thetermcanbeusedtoconnotetheimpliedarchitectureofmathematicsorofabstractthingssuchasmusic,theapparentarchitectureofnaturalthings,suchasgeologicalformationsorthestructureofbiologicalcells,orexplicitlyplannedarchitecturesofwhichpreservestherelationshipsamongtheelementsorcomponents.
TheoryofArchitecture
Mainarticle:
Architecturaltheory
Historictreatises
ArchitecturaldrawingsofdetailsofthePalaceofPersepolis,Persia
TheearliestwrittenworkonthesubjectofarchitectureisDearchitectura,bytheRomanarchitectVitruviusintheearly1stcenturyCE.[10]AccordingtoVitruvius,agoodbuildingshouldsatisfythethreeprinciplesoffirmitatisutilitatisvenustatis,[11][12]whichtranslatesroughlyas-
∙Durability-itshouldstanduprobustlyandremainingoodcondition.
∙Utility-itshouldbeusefulandfunctionwellforthepeopleusingit.
∙Beauty-itshoulddelightpeopleandraisetheirspirits.
AccordingtoVitruvius,thearchitectshouldstrivetofulfilleachofthesethreeattributesaswellaspossible.
TheParthenon,Athens,"thesupremeexampleamongarchitecturalsites."(Fletcher).[13]
LeoneBattistaAlberti,whoelaboratesontheideasofVitruviusinhistreatise,DeReAedificatoria,sawbeautyprimarilyasamatterofproportion,althoughornamentalsoplayedapart.ForAlberti,therulesofproportionwerethosethatgovernedtheidealisedhumanfigure,theGoldenMean.Themostimportantaspectofbeautywasthereforeaninherentpartofanobject,ratherthansomethingappliedsuperficially;andwasbasedonuniversal,recognisabletruths.Thenotionofstyleintheartswasnotdevelopeduntilthe16thcentury,withthewritingofVasari.[14]Thetreatises,bythe18thcentury,hadbeentranslatedintoItalian,French,SpanishandEnglish.
Intheearlynineteenthcentury,AugustusWelbyNorthmorePuginwroteContrasts(1836)that,asthetitledsuggested,contrastedthemodern,industrialworld,whichhedisparaged,withanidealizedimageofneo-medievalworld.Gothicarchitecture,Puginbelieved,wastheonly“trueChristianformofarchitecture.”
The19thcenturyEnglishartcritic,JohnRuskin,inhisSevenLampsofArchitecture,published1849,[15]wasmuchnarrowerinhisviewofwhatconstitutedarchitecture.Architecturewasthe"artwhichsodisposesandadornstheedificesraisedbymen...thatthesightofthem"contributes"tohismentalhealth,power,andpleasure".ForRuskin,theaestheticwasofoverridingsignificance.Hisworkgoesontostatethatabuildingisnottrulyaworkofarchitectureunlessitisinsomeway"adorned".ForRuskin,awell-constructed,well-proportioned,functionalbuildingneededstringcoursesorrustication,attheveryleast.
Onthedifferencebetweentheidealsof"architecture"andmere"construction",therenowned20thC.architectLeCorbusierwrote:
"Youemploystone,wood,andconcrete,andwiththesematerialsyoubuildhousesandpalaces:
thatisconstruction.Ingenuityisatwork.Butsuddenlyyoutouchmyheart,youdomegood.IamhappyandIsay:
Thisisbeautiful.ThatisArchitecture".[16]
TheNationalCongressofBrazil,designedbyOscarNiemeyer.
Modernconceptsofarchitecture
Thegreat19thcenturyarchitectofskyscrapers,LouisSullivan,promotedanoverridingprecepttoarchitecturaldesign:
"Formfollowsfunction".
Whilethenotionthatstructuralandaestheticconsiderationsshouldbeentirelysubjecttofunctionalitywasmetwithbothpopularityandskepticism,ithadtheeffectofintroducingtheconceptof"function"inplaceofVitruvius"utility"."Function"cametobeseenasencompassingallcriteriaoftheuse,perceptionandenjoymentofabuilding,notonlypracticalbutalsoaesthetic,psychologicalandcultural.
SydneyOperaHouse,designedbyUtzon.
NunziaRondaninistated,"Throughitsaestheticdimensionarchitecturegoesbeyondthefunctionalaspectsthatithasincommonwithotherhumansciences.Throughitsownparticularwayofexpressingvalues,architecturecanstimulateandinfluencesociallifewithoutpresumingthat,inandofitself,itwillpromotesocialdevelopment.
Torestrictthemeaningof(architectural)formalismtoartforart'ssakeisnotonlyreactionary;itcanalsobeapurposelessquestforperfectionororiginalitywhichdegradesformintoamereinstrumentality".[17]
Amongthephilosophiesthathaveinfluencedmodernarchitectsandtheirapproachtobuildingdesignarerationalism,empiricism,structuralism,poststructuralism,andphenomenology.
Inthelate20thcenturyanewconceptwasaddedtothoseincludedinthecompassofbothstructureandfunction,theconsiderationofsustainability.Tosatisfythemodernethosabuildingshouldbeconstructedinamannerwhichisenvironmentallyfriendlyintermsoftheproductionofitsmaterials,itsimpactuponthenaturalandbuiltenvironmentofitssurroundingareaandthedemandsthatitmakesuponnon-sustainablepowersourcesforheating,cooling,waterandwastemanagementandlighting.
History
Mainarticle:
Historyofarchitecture
VernaculararchitectureinDenmark.
Originsandtheancientworld
Architecturefirstevolvedoutofthedynamicsbetweenneeds(shelter,security,worship,etc.)andmeans(availablebuildingmaterialsandattendantskills).Ashumanculturesdevelopedandknowledgebegantobeformalizedthroughoraltraditionsandpractices,architecturebecameacraft.Herethereisfirstaprocessoftrialanderror,andlaterimprovisationorreplicationofasuccessfultrial.WhatistermedVernaculararchitecturecontinuestobeproducedinmanypartsoftheworld.Indeed,vernacularbuildingsmakeupmostoft
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