OfferandAcceptance.docx
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OfferandAcceptance.docx
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OfferandAcceptance
Offerandacceptance
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Offerandacceptanceanalysisisatraditionalapproachincontractlawusedtodeterminewhetheranagreementexistsbetweentwoparties.Asacontractisanagreement,anofferisanindicationbyoneperson(the"offeror")toanother(the"offeree")oftheofferor'swillingnesstoenterintoacontractoncertaintermswithoutfurthernegotiations.Acontractissaidtocomeintoexistencewhenacceptanceofanoffer(agreementtothetermsinit)hasbeencommunicatedtotheofferorbytheofferee.
Theofferandacceptanceformula,developedinthe19thcentury,identifiesamomentofformationwhenthepartiesareofonemind.Thisclassicalapproachtocontractformationhasbeenweakenedbydevelopmentsinthelawofestoppel,misleadingconduct,misrepresentationandunjustenrichment.
Offer
AnofferisdefinedbyTreitelas"anexpressionofwillingnesstocontractoncertainterms,madewiththeintentionthatitshallbecomebindingassoonasitisacceptedbythepersontowhomitisaddressed",the"offeree".Anofferisastatementofthetermsonwhichtheofferoriswillingtobebound.
The"expression"referredtointhedefinitionmaytakedifferentforms,suchasaletter,newspaper,fax,emailandevenconduct,aslongasitcommunicatesthebasisonwhichtheofferorispreparedtocontract.
WhethertwopartieshaveanagreementoravalidofferisanissuewhichisdeterminedbythecourtusingtheObjectivetest(Smithv.Hughes).Thereforethe"intention"referredtointhedefinitionisobjectivelyjudgedbythecourts.IntheEnglishcaseofSmithv.Hughes[2]thecourtemphasisedthattheimportantthingisnotaparty'srealintentionsbuthowareasonablepersonwouldviewthesituation.Thisisduemainlytocommonsenseaseachpartywouldnotwishtobreachhissideofthecontractifitwouldmakehimorherculpabletodamages,itwouldespeciallybecontrarytotheprincipleofcertaintyandclarityincommercialcontractandthetopicofmistakeandhowitaffectsthecontract.
Unilateralcontract
ThecontractinCarlillv.CarbolicSmokeBallCo[3]wasofakindknownasaunilateralcontract,oneinwhichtheoffereeacceptstheofferbyperforminghisorhersideofthebargain.Itcanbecontrastedwithabilateralcontract,wherethereisanexchangeofpromisesbetweentwoparties.InAustralianWoollenMillsPtyLtdv.TheCommonwealth(1954),theHighCourtofAustraliaheldthat,foraunilateralcontracttoarise,thepromisemustbemade"inreturnfor"thedoingoftheact.Thecourtdistinguishedbetweenaunilateralcontractandaconditionalgift.Thecaseisgenerallyseentodemonstratetheconnectionbetweentherequirementsofofferandacceptance,considerationandintentiontocreatelegalrelations.
Invitationstotreat
Aninvitationtotreatisnotanoffer,butanindicationofaperson'swillingnesstonegotiateacontract.InHarveyv.Facey[4],anindicationbytheownerofpropertythatheorshemightbeinterestedinsellingatacertainprice,forexample,hasbeenregardedasaninvitationtotreat.SimilarlyinGibsonvManchesterCityCouncil[5]thewords"maybepreparedtosell"wereheldtobeanotificationofpriceandthereforenotadistinctoffer,thoughinanothercaseconcerningthesamechangeofpolicy(ManchesterCityCouncilunderwentachangeofpoliticalcontrolandstoppedthesaleofcouncilhousestotheirtenants)Storerv.ManchesterCityCouncil[6],thecourtheldthatanagreementwascompletedbythetenant'ssigningandreturningtheagreementtopurchase,asthelanguageoftheagreementhadbeensufficientlyexplicitandthesignatureonbehalfofthecouncilamereformalitytobecompleted.
Thecourtshavetendedtotakeaconsistentapproachtotheidentificationofinvitationstotreat,ascomparedwithofferandacceptance,incommontransactions.Thedisplayofgoodsforsale,whetherinashopwindoworontheshelvesofaself-servicestore,isordinarilytreatedasaninvitationtotreatandnotanoffer.
Theholdingofapublicauctionwillalsousuallyberegardedasaninvitationtotreat.Auctionsare,however,aspecialcasegenerally.Theruleisthatthebidderismakinganoffertobuyandtheauctioneeracceptsthisinwhatevermanneriscustomary,usuallythefallofthehammer.Abiddermaywithdrawhisorherbidatanytimebeforethefallofthehammer,butanybidinanyeventlapsesasanofferonthemakingofahigherbid,sothatifahigherbidismade,thenwithdrawnbeforethefallofthehammer,theauctioneercannotthenpurporttoaccepttheprevioushighestbid.Ifanauctioniswithoutreservethenwhilstthereisnocontractofsalebetweentheownerofthegoodsandthehighestbidder(becausetheplacingofgoodsintheauctionisaninvitationtotreat)thereisacollateralcontractbetweentheauctioneerandthehighestbidderthattheauctionwillbeheldwithoutreserve(i.e.,thatthehighestbid,howeverlow,willbeaccepted).[9]TheU.S.UniformCommercialCodeprovidesthatinanauctionwithoutreservethegoodsmaynotbewithdrawnoncetheyhavebeenputup.[10]
Invitationtotreat(orinvitationtobargainintheUS)isacontractlawterm.ItcomesfromtheLatinphraseinvitatioadofferendumandmeansan"invitinganoffer".OrasAndrewBurrowswrites,aninvitatontotreatis
"anexpressionofwillingnesstonegotiate.Apersonmakinganinvitationtotreatdoesnotintendtobeboundassoonasitisacceptedbythepersontowhomthestatementisaddressed."[1]
Contractlawyersdistinguishthisfromabindingoffer,whichmaybeacceptedtoformacontract(subjecttootherconditionsbeingmet).Thedistinctionbetweenanofferandinvitationtotreatisbestunderstoodthroughthecategoriesthatthecourtscreate.Invitationstotreatincludethedisplayofgoods;theadvertisementofapriceoranauction;andaninvitationfortenders(orcompetitivebids).Theremaybestatutoryorcomplementaryobligations,soconsumerprotectionlawsprohibitmisleadingadvertisingandrequire,atauctionswithoutreserve,sellingtothehighestbonafidebidder,butthegeneralruleisthat,unlikeanactualoffer,aninvitationtotreatisnotbinding.The"inviter"maychangehismind.
Revocationofoffer
Anofferormayrevokeanofferbeforeithasbeenaccepted,buttherevocationmustbecommunicatedtotheofferee,althoughnotnecessarilybytheofferor.Iftheofferwasmadetotheentireworld,suchasinCarlill'scase,therevocationmusttakeaformthatissimilartotheoffer.However,anoffermaynotberevokedifithasbeenencapsulatedinanoption(seealsooptioncontract).
Iftheofferisonethatleadstoaunilateralcontract,thenunlesstherewasanancillarycontractenteredintothatguaranteedthatthemaincontractwouldnotbewithdrawn,thecontractmayberevokedatanytime:
Acceptance
Testofacceptance
Acceptanceisafinalandunqualifiedexpressionofassenttothetermsofanoffer.Itisnodefensetoanactionbasedonacontractforthedefendanttoclaimthatheneverintendedtobeboundbytheagreementifunderallthecircumstancesitisshownattrialthathisconductwassuchthatitcommunicatedtotheotherpartyorpartiesthatthedefendanthadinfactagreed.Signingofacontractisonewayapartymayshowhisassent.Alternatively,anofferconsistingofapromisetopaysomeoneifthelatterperformscertainactswhichthelatterwouldnototherwisedo(suchaspaintahouse)maybeacceptedbytherequestedconductinsteadofapromisetodotheact.Theperformanceoftherequestedactindicatesobjectivelytheparty'sassenttothetermsoftheoffer.
Theessentialrequirementisthattheremustbeevidencethatthepartieshadeachfromanobjectiveperspectiveengagedinconductmanifestingtheirassent.Thismanifestationofassenttheoryofcontractformationmaybecontrastedwitholdertheories,inwhichitwassometimesarguedthatacontractrequiredthepartiestohaveatruemeetingofthemindsbetweentheparties.Underthe"meetingoftheminds"theoryofcontract,apartycouldresistaclaimofbreachbyprovingthatalthoughitmayhaveappearedobjectivelythatheintendedtobeboundbytheagreement,hehadnevertrulyintendedtobebound.Thisisunsatisfactory,astheotherpartieshavenomeansofknowingtheircounterparts'undisclosedintentionsorunderstandings.Theycanonlyactuponwhatapartyrevealsobjectivelytobehisintent.Hence,anactualmeetingofthemindsisnotrequired.Indeed,ithasbeenarguedthatthe"meetingoftheminds"ideaisentirelyamodernerror:
19thcenturyjudgesspokeof"consensusadidem"whichmodernteachershavewronglytranslatedas"meetingofminds"butactuallymeans"agreementtothe[same]thing".[12]
Thisrequirementofanobjectiveperspectiveisimportantincaseswhereapartyclaimsthatanofferwasnotaccepted,takingadvantageoftheperformanceoftheotherparty.Here,wecanapplythetestofwhetherareasonablebystander(a"flyonthewall")wouldhaveperceivedthatthepartyhasimpliedlyacceptedtheofferbyconduct.
Rulesofacceptance
Communicationofacceptance
Thereareseveralrulesdealingwiththecommunicationofacceptance:
∙Theacceptancemustbecommunicated:
seePowellv.Lee(1908)99L.T.284;RobophoneFacilitiesLtdv.Blank[1966]3AllE.R.128.Priortoacceptance,anoffermaybewithdrawn.
∙Anexceptionexistsinthecaseofunilateralcontracts,inwhichtheofferormakesanoffertotheworldwhichcanbeacceptedbysomeact.AclassicinstanceofthisisthecaseofCarlillv.CarbolicSmokeBallCo.[1892]2Q.B.484inwhichanofferwasmadetopay£100toanyonewhohav
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