英语六级口语cet6 oral.docx
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英语六级口语cet6 oral.docx
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英语六级口语cet6oral
ThewarbetweenBritainandFrance
Inthelateeighteenthcentury,battlesragedinalmosteverycornerofEurope,aswellasintheMiddleEast,southAfrica,theWestIndies,andLatinAmerica.Inreality,however,therewasonlyonemajorwarduringthistime,thewarbetweenBritainandFrance.Allotherbattleswereancillarytothislargerconflict,andwereoftenatleastpartiallyrelatedtoitsantagonist’goalsandstrategies.FrancesoughttotaldominationofEurope.thisgoalwasobstructedbyBritishindependenceandBritain’seffortsthroughoutthecontinenttothwartNapoleon;throughtreaties.Britainbuiltcoalitions(notdissimilarinconcepttotoday’sNATO)guaranteeingBritishparticipationinallmajorEuropeanconflicts.Thesetwoantagonistswerepoorlymatched,insofarastheyhadveryunequalstrengths;Francewaspredominantonland,Britainatsea.TheFrenchknewthat,shortofdefeatingtheBritishnavy,theironlyhopeofvictorywastoclosealltheportsofEuropetoBritishships.Accordingly,FrancesetouttoovercomeBritainbyextendingitsmilitarydominationfromMoscowtLisbon,fromJutlandtoCalabria.Allofthisentailedtremendousrisk,becauseFrancedidnothavethemilitaryresourcestocontrolthismuchterritoryandstillprotectitselfandmaintainorderathome.
Frenchstrategistscalculatedthatanavyof150shipswouldprovidetheforcenecessarytodefeattheBritishnavy.SuchaforcewouldgiveFranceathree-to-twoadvantageoverBritain.ThisadvantagewasdeemednecessarybecauseofBritain’ssuperiorseaskillsandtechnologybecauseofBritain’ssuperiorseaskillsandtechnology,andalsobecauseBritainwouldbefightingadefensivewar,allowingittowinwithfewerforces.NapoleonneverlostsubstantialimpedimenttohiscontrolofEurope.Ashisforcenearedthatgoal,Napoleongrewincreasinglyimpatientandbeganplanninganimmediateattack.
Evolutionofsleep
Sleepisveryancient.Intheelectroencephalographicsenseweshareitwithalltheprimatesandalmostalltheothermammalsandbirds:
itmayextendbackasfarasthereptiles.
Thereissomeevidencethatthetwotypesofsleep,dreaminganddreamless,dependonthelife-styleoftheanimal,andthatpredatorsarestatisticallymuchmorelikelytodreamthanprey,whichareinturnmuchmorelikelytoexperiencedreamlesssleep.Indreamsleep,theanimalispowerfullyimmobilizedandremarkablyunresponsivetoexternalstimuli.Dreamlesssleepismuchshallower,andwehaveallwitnessedcatsordogscockingtheirearstoasoundwhenapparentlyfastasleep.Thefactthatdeepdreamsleepisrareamongpraytodayseemsclearlytobeaproductofnaturalselection,anditmakessensethattoday,whensleepishighlyevolved,thestupidanimalsarelessfrequentlyimmobilizedbydeepsleepthanthesmartones.Butwhyshouldtheysleepdeeplyatall?
Whyshouldastateofsuchdeepimmobilizationeverhaveevolved?
Perhapsoneusefulhintabouttheoriginalfunctionofsleepistobefoundinthefactthatdolphinsandwhalesandaquaticmammalsingeneraseemtosleepverylittle.Thereis,byandlarge,noplacetohideintheocean.Coulditbethat,ratherthanincreasingananimal’svulnerability,theUniversityofFloridaandRayMeddisofLondonUniversityhavesuggestedthistobethecase.Itisconceivablethatanimalswhoaretoostupidtobequiteontheirowninitiativeare,duringperiodsofhighrisk,immobilizedbytheimplacablearmofsleep.Thepointseemsparticularlyclearfortheyoungofpredatoryanimals.Thisisaninterestingnotionandprobablyatleastpartlytrue.
ModernAmericanUniversities
Beforethe1850’s,theUnitedStateshadanumberofsmallcolleges,mostofthemdatingfromcolonialdays.Theyweresmall,churchconnectedinstitutionswhoseprimaryconcernwastoshapethemoralcharacteroftheirstudents.
ThroughoutEurope,institutionsofhigherlearninghaddeveloped,bearingtheancientnameofuniversity.InGermanuniversitywasconcernedprimarilywithcreatingandspreadingknowledge,notmorals.Betweenmid-centuryandtheendofthe1800’s,morethanninethousandyoungAmericans,dissatisfiedwiththeirtrainingathome,wenttoGermanyforadvancedstudy.Someofthemreturntobecomepresidentsofvenerablecolleges-----Harvard,Yale,Columbia---andtransformthemintomodernuniversities.Thenewpresidentsbrokealltieswiththechurchesandbroughtinanewkindoffaculty.Professorswerehiredfortheirknowledgeofasubject,notbecausetheywereoftheproperfaithandhadastrongarmfordiscipliningstudents.Thenewprinciplewasthatauniversitywastocreateknowledgeaswellaspassiton,andthiscalledforafacultycomposedofteacher-scholars.DrillingandlearningbyrotewerereplacedbytheGermanmethodoflecturing,inwhichtheprofessor’sownresearchwaspresentedinclass.GraduatetrainingleadingtothePh.D.,anancientGermandegreesignifyingthehighestlevelofadvancedscholarlyattainment,wasintroduced.Withtheestablishmentoftheseminarsystem,graduatestudentlearnedtoquestion,analyze,andconducttheirownresearch.
Atthesametime,thenewuniversitygreatlyexpandedinsizeandcourseofferings,breakingcompletelyoutoftheold,constrictedcurriculumofmathematics,classics,rhetoric,andmusic.ThepresidentofHarvardpioneeredtheelectivesystem,bywhichstudentswereabletochoosetheirowncourseofstudy.Thenotionofmajorfieldsofstudyemerged.Thenewgoalwastomaketheuniversityrelevanttotherealpursuitsoftheworld.Payingcloseheedtothepracticalneedsofsociety,thenewuniversitiestrainedmenandwomentoworkatitstasks,withengineeringstudentsbeingthemostcharacteristicofthenewregime.Studentswerealsotrainedaseconomists,architects,agriculturalists,socialwelfareworkers,andteachers.
children’snumericalskills
peopleappeartoborntocompute.Thenumericalskillsofchildrendevelopsoearlyandsoinexorablythatitiseasytoimagineaninternalclockofmathematicalmaturityguidingtheirgrowth.Notlongafterlearningtowalkandtalk,theycansetthetablewithimpressaccuracy---oneknife,onespoon,onefork,foreachofthefivechairs.Soontheyarecapableofnothingthattheyhaveplacedfiveknives,spoonsandforksonthetableand,abitlater,thatthisamountstofifteenpiecesofsilverware.Havingthusmasteredaddition,theymoveontosubtraction.Itseemsalmostreasonabletoexpectthatifachildweresecludedonadesertislandatbirthandretrievedsevenyearslater,heorshecouldenterasecondenterasecond-grademathematicsclasswithoutanyseriousproblemsofintellectualadjustment.
Ofcourse,thetruthisnotsosimple.Thiscentury,theworkofcognitivepsychologistshasilluminatedthesubtleformsofdailylearningonwhichintellectualprogressdepends.Childrenwereobservedastheyslowlygrasped-----or,asthecasemightbe,bumpedinto-----conceptsthatadultstakeforquantityisunchangedaswaterpoursfromashortglassintoatallthinone.Psychologistshavesincedemonstratedthatyoungchildren,askedtocountthepencilsinapile,readilyreportthenumberofblueorredpencils,butmustbecoaxedintofindingthetotal.Suchstudieshavesuggestedthattherudimentsofmathematicsaremasteredgradually,andwitheffort.Theyhavealsosuggestedthattheveryconceptofabstractnumbers------theideaofaoneness,
atwoness,athreenessthatappliestoanyclassofobjectsandisaprerequisitefordoinganythingmoremathematicallydemandingthansettingatable-----isitselffarfrominnate
TheHistoricalSignificanceofAmericanRevolution
Thewaysofhistoryaresointricateandthemotivationsofhumanactionssocomplexthatitisalwayshazardoustoattempttorepresenteventscoveringanumberofyears,amultiplicityofpersons,anddistantlocalitiesastheexpressionofoneintellectualorsocialmovement;yetthehistoricalprocesswhichculminatedintheascentofThomasJeffersontothepresidencycanberegardedastheoutstandingexamplenotonlyofthebirthofanewwayoflifebutofnationalismasanewwayoflife.TheAmericanRevolutionrepresentsthelinkbetweentheseventeenthcentury,inwhichmodernEnglandbecameconsciousofitself,andtheawakeningofmodernEuropeattheendoftheeighteenthcentury.ItmayseemstrangethatthemarchofhistoryshouldhavehadtocrosstheAtlanticOcean,butonlyintheNorthAmericancoloniescouldastruggleforciviclibertyleadalsotothefoundationofanewnation.Here,inthepopularrisingagainsta“tyrannical”government,thefruitsweremorethanthesecuringofafreerconstitution.Theyincludedthegrowthofanationborninlibertybythewillofthepeople,notfromtherootsofcommondescent,ageographicentity,ortheambitionsofkingordynasty.WiththeAmericannation,forthefirsttime,anationwasborn,notinthedimpastofhistorybutbeforetheeyesofthewholeworld.
01TheLanguageofMusic
Apainterhangshisorherfinishedpicturesonawall,andeveryonecanseeit.Acomposerwritesawork,butnoonecanhearituntilitisperformed.Professionalsingersandplayershavegreatresponsibilities,forthecomposerisutterlydependentonthem.Astudentofmusicneedsaslongandasarduousatrainingtobecomeaperformerasamedicalstudentneedstobecomeadoctor.Mosttrainingisconcernedwithtechnique,formusicianshavetohavethemuscularproficiencyofanathleteoraballetdancer.Singerspracticebreathingeveryday,astheirvocalchordswouldbeinadequatewithoutcontrolledmuscularsupport.Stringplayerspracticemovingthefingersofthelefthandupand
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