social psychology of identidties.docx
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socialpsychologyofidentidties
SocialPsychologyofIdentities
Author(s):
JudithA.Howard
Source:
AnnualReviewofSociology,Vol.26(2000),pp.367-393
Publishedby:
AnnualReviews
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Annu.Rev.Sociol.2000.26:
367-93
Copyright(2000byAnnualReviews.Allrightsreserved
SOCIALPSYCHOLOGYOFIDENTITIES
JudithA.Howard
DepartmentofSociology,UniversityofWashingtonS,eattle,Washington98195;
e-mail:
jhoward@u.washingtone.du
KeyWordssocialconstructionofidentity,language,intersectionsofidentities,
socialcognition,symbolicinteraction
*AbstractInthischapterIreviewthesocialpsychologicalunderpinningosfidentity,
emphasizingsocialcognitiveandsymbolicinteractionispterspectiveasndresearch,
andIturnthentokeythemesofcurrentworkonidentity-socialpsychological,sociological,
andinterdisciplinaryI.emphasizethesocialbasesofidentity,particularly
identitiesbasedonethnicity,race,sexuality,gender,class,age,and(dis)abilityb,oth
separatelyandastheyintersectI.alsotakeupidentitiesbasedonspace,bothgeographic
andvirtual.Idiscussstrugglesoveridentities,organizedbysocialinequalitiesn,ationalisms,
andsocialmovements.Iconcludebydiscussingpostmodernisctonceptions
ofidentitiesasfluid,multidimensionapl,ersonalizedsocialconstructiontshatreflect
sociohistoricaclontexts,approachesremarkablyconsistentwithrecentempiricalsocial
psychologicalresearch,andIargueexplicitlyforapoliticizedsocialpsychology
ofidentitiesthatbringstogetherthestructureosfeverydaylivesandthesociocultural
realitiesinwhichthoselivesarelived.
"Identity...isaconceptthatneitherimprisons(asdoesmuchinsociology)
nordetaches(asdoesmuchinphilosophyandpsychology)personsfrom
theirsocialandsymbolicuniverses,[so]ithasovertheyearsretaineda
genericforcethatfewconceptsinourfieldhave."
(Davis1991:
105)
"[I]dentityisneverapriori,norafinishedproduct;itisonlyeverthe
problematicprocessofaccesstoanimageoftotality."
(Bhabha1994:
51)
INTRODUCTION
"Identity"isakeywordofcontemporarysocietyandacentralfocusofsocial
psychologicaltheorizingandresearch.Atearlierhistoricalmoments,identitywas
notsomuchanissue;whensocietiesweremorestable,identitywastoagreatextent
assigned,ratherthanselectedoradopted.Incurrenttimes,however,theconceptof
identitycarriesthefullweightoftheneedforasenseofwhooneis,togetherwithan
oftenoverwhelmingpaceofchangeinsurroundingsocialcontexts-changesinthe
0360-0572/00/0815-0367$14.00367
368HOWARD
groupsandnetworksinwhichpeopleandtheiridentitiesareembeddedandinthe
societalstructuresandpracticesinwhichthosenetworksarethemselvesembedded.
Socialcognitionandsymbolicinteraction,twooftheprevailingperspectivesin
sociologicalsocialpsychology,providethetheoreticalunderpinningsoftraditional
understandingsofidentity.Inthepastseveraldecades,theconceptofidentityhas
beentakenupmorebroadly,bothwithinsociologyandinotherdisciplines.Inthis
essay,Ireviewkeyquestionsandrecentresearchonidentityinsocialcognition
andsymbolicinteraction,thentakeupkeythemesofcurrentsocialpsychological
workonidentity:
identityandsocialinequalitiesparticularlyasexpressedinrace
andethnicity,gender,sexuality,andothersystemsofsocialstratificationr;esearch
onhowthesemultipleidentitiesintersect;identitiesbasedonlocationalindicators
suchasgeography,place,cyberspace;questionsofthe(in)stabilityofidentities;
andthepoliticizationofidentities.
SOCIALCOGNITION
Socialcognitionisatheoryofhowwestoreandprocessinformation(Fiske&
Taylor1991,Augoustinos&Walker1995).Socialcognitionhascloserootstopsychology
andarelianceonexperimentallaboratorymethodologies.Severalcentral
assumptionsunderliesocialcognitivetheoriesofidentity:
thathumancognitive
capacitiesarelimited;that,therefore,weprocessinformationascognitivemisers,
streamlininginformationtomanagethedemandsofeverydayinteraction;that,
followingfromthisneedforcognitiveefficiency,wecategorizeinformationabout
people,objects,andsituationsbeforeweengagememoryorinferentialprocesses.
CognitiveStructures
Cognitiveschemas,abstractandorganizedpackagesofinformation,arethecognitive
versionofidentities.Self-schemasincludeorganizedknowledgeaboutone's
self,thecognitiveresponsetothequestionofidentity:
WhoamI?
Theseinclude
thecharacteristics,preferences,goals,andbehaviorpatternsweassociatewith
ourselves.Groupschemas(analogoustostereotypes)includeorganizedinformation
aboutsocialpositionsandstratificationstatuses,suchasgender,race,age,
orclass.Becausethesocialpositionsweoccupyhaveimmediateconsequences
foroursenseofself,groupschemasplayamajorpartinprocessesofidentification.
Selfandgroupschemasillustratebothadvantagesanddisadvantagesof
categorizationsystems.Theyallowustosummarizeandreduceinformationto
keyelements;thus,theyalsoentaillosingpotentiallyvaluableinformation.And,
categorizationsarealmostalwaysaccompaniedbysystemsofevaluationofsome
categoriesasbetterorworse.Schemasarenotjustperceptualphenomenona;they
canserveasexplanatorydevicesandjustificationsofsocialrelationships(Tajfel
1981).Thus,socialidentitiesareembeddedinsociopoliticalcontexts.
Socialidentitytheoryfocusesontheextenttowhichindividualsidentifythemselves
intermsofgroupmemberships(Tajfel&Turner1986).Thecentraltenetof
SOCIALPSYCHOLOGOYFIDENTITIES
socialidentitytheoryisthatindividualsdefinetheiridentitiesalongtwo
dimensions:
social,definedbymembershipinvarioussocialgroups;andpersonal,
theidiosyncraticattributesthatdistinguishanindividualfromothers.Social
andpersonalidentitiesarethoughttolieatoppositeendsofacontinuum,becoming
moreorlesssalientdependingonthecontext.Deaux(1993),however,argues
foraninterplaybetweenthetwo,suggestingtheyarenoteasilyseparable.Social
identitiesprovidestatusandenhance(ornot)self-esteem.Becausepeopleare
motivatedtoevaluatethemselvespositively,theytendtoevaluatepositivelythose
groupstowhichtheybelongandtodiscriminateagainstgroupstheyperceiveto
poseathreattotheirsocialidentity.
Empiricalsupporthasreliedheavilyonstudiesusingtheminimalgroup
paradigm(Tajfel1970),wherebypeopleareclassifiedintodistinctgroupson
thebasisofanarbitraryandtrivialcriterionunderconditionsfreefromotherfactors
usuallyassociatedwithgroupmemberships.Undertheseminimalconditions,
peopledodiscriminateinfavorofin-groupsinallocationofvariousrewards.The
mostsociologicallyrelevantrecentstudieshaveextendedthistraditiontosocially
meaningfulgroupsandsituations.Simonetal(1997),forexample,demonstrate
thatbeinginanumericalminority(apredictorofidentificationinthistradition)
doesnotleadtoidentificationunlessthein-group-out-groupcategorizationissituationally
meaningful.
Themorepositive,andmorepersonallyimportant,aspectsoftheselfarelikely
tobebasesonwhichapersonlocatesher-orhimselfintermsofcollectivecategories
(Simon&Hastedt1999),demonstratingtherelationshipbetweencategorizationa
ndevaluation.Thispointstowardmoresuccessfulattainmentofapositive
socialidentityforthoseindominantsocialgroups.Thisprocessisachallengefor
membersofstigmatized,negativelyvaluedgroups,whomayattempttodissociate
themselves,toevaluatethedistinguishingdimensionsofin-groupsaslessnegative,
toratetheirin-groupasmorefavorableonotherdimensions,ortocompete
directlywiththeout-grouptoproducechangesinthestatusofthegroups.Much
ofthisresearchaccordsconsiderableagency,bothcognitiveandmaterial,tosocial
actors.
Onerelevantlineofresearchexploresthepsychologicalconsequencesofidentifications
withethnicin-andout-groups.Fordham&Ogbu(1986),forexample,
suggestthatacademicfailureamongAfrican-Americanstudentsrepresents
adesiretomaintaintheirracialidentityandsolidaritywiththeirownculture.
High-achievingAfrican-Americanchildrendevelopa"raceless"persona,butat
thecostofinterpersonaclonflictandambivalence;adoptionof"raceless"behaviors
andattitudesdohavenegativepsychologicalconsequencesforAfrican-American
students(Arroyo&Zigler1995).Directimpressionmanagementstrategiesintended
tocounternegativeevaluationsoftheirin-groupalsoincrease,oneofmany
indicatorsoftheinterdependenceofcognitionandinteraction.Thefocusonpsychological
consequencesofidentificationspeaksalsototheinterconnectedness
ofcognitionandemotion.Thus,forexample,individuals'prejudicesmayshape
notonlytheirownidentificationsbutalsotheircategorizationsofothers.Racially
prejudiced
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