LUNAR PROPERTY AND MINING RIGHTS.docx
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LUNAR PROPERTY AND MINING RIGHTS.docx
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LUNARPROPERTYANDMININGRIGHTS
LUNARPROPERTYANDMININGRIGHTS
AnInteractiveQualifyingProjectReport:
submittedtotheFaculty
ofthe
WORCESTERPOLYTECHNICINSTITUTE
inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe
DegreeofBachelorofScience
by
JosephMiller
and
DavidCoit
Date:
26May2008
ProfessorJohnM.Wilkes,Advisor
Introduction
Asecondspaceraceisuponus.MajorcountriessuchastheUnitedStates,Russia,ChinaandJapan,amongothers,areallinvolvedinmakingplanstovisitorrevisitthemoonby2025.Seriouscolonizationcouldbeginwithinthreedecadesinanattempttoharvestthemoonforvaluableresources.Space-faringnationsalsowanttobeginlearninghowtobuildandsupplybasesaspartofcarryingoutinterplanetarymissions.
DuringthefirstSpaceRaceofthe1960s,theUnitedStatesandRussiacompetedtobethefirstcountrytohaveamanwalkonthemoon.Americawonwhen,onJuly20,1969,NeilArmstrongfirstwalkedonthesurfaceofthemoonduringtheApollo11mission.Thisracewasmomentousnotonlyforthefactthathumanshadfinallyreachedoutandachievedsuccessinakeyfacetofspacetravel,butalsoforthefactthatspacewasnowanewfrontierofEarth.Assuch,treatieswrittenduringthetimeoftheSpaceRacewhichweredesignedtodesignatespaceasapeacefulenvironmentforallmankindtoresearchandexplorecooperatively.
ThemostwidelyrecognizedofthesetreatiesistheOuterSpaceTreaty(OST),ratifiedbytheUnitedNationsinJanuary1967.ManyofthemainarticlesoftheOSTaredesignedtoensurepeaceandcooperationinspace,declaringallweaponsofmass-destructionbannedfromspace,andcitingtherescueofforeignastronautsasmandatory,shouldtheneedarise.TheOSTalsoprohibitsanycountryfromclaimingpropertyasitsowninanypartofspace.Thisseverelyaffectsthecountriesinvolvedduringthissecondraceastheywanttomineandsetuplunarbases.Investmentincolonieswillrequirerightspertainingtopropertyownershipandminingrights.
Mostpeople’sperceptionisthatthemoonisadesertinwhichoneregionismuchlikeanotherandnothingparticularlyvaluableisthere.Inreality,thepolarandequatorialregionsareverydifferentandapotentialenergyresourceispresent.Oneofthelegaciesofthefirstmoonraceissamplesofvariouslunarregionswhichchallengethisundifferentiated“desert”image.Hence,wewillbemakinganaturalresourcecaseforthemoon,stressingtheimplicationsofthepresenceofHelium-3(He-3).Insodoing,wewillbesettingthestagefordescribingtheinstitutionalstructurewhichwillgovernthedevelopmentofthemoonandshapelaterspacelaw.
OuraiminthispaperistoexplainthespecificsoftheOST,andanalyzeitsimplicationsintermsofhowitappliestotheworldtoday.Theshortcomingshavebecomeclearergiventhepassageoftimeandtherehavebeenchangesofcountries'policiesandpoliticalstructuresincetheoriginaltreatywaswritten.Inaddition,analogouslawsandotherhistoricalanalogieswillbedevelopedintoausefullegaldiscourse,providingaclearerunderstandingofthewaywethinkthesituationshouldbeinterpreted.Fromthisperspective,whichanticipatestheemergenceofcompetitionforlunarresources,itshouldbeclearwhywethinkchangeinthelegalframeworkdefinedbytreatyiscalledfor.Intheendwewillproposespecificchangesdesignedtosecurepublicandprivateinvestments,legitimatestateinterests,andinternationalpeace.
Overview
1)WhyAreweConcerned?
Theentirediscussionofwhetherornotthelawsofspaceneedtochangeismootifitisnotdiscussedinthecontextofwhyhumansshouldgointospaceinthefirstplace.Inourview,therearelegitimatenationalaspirationsandintereststobefurtheredandprotectedthatwilldrivespaceactivityevenmorenowthaninthepast.Whathaschangedsincethelastmannedmissionstothemoon?
WeknowmuchmoreaboutwhatisthereandconditionsonEarthhavechangedpolitically,economicallyandtechnologically.Isthereeconomicvalueinreturning,orisspaceonlyofscientificinterest?
Itislikelythatthelongtermeconomicvaluewilloutweighthescientificvalue,butinitiallyitmaynotlookthatway.Specificallypertainingtothelaws,whatisdifferentaboutthisSecondSpaceRacethatwouldrequiretheradicalrevisionofthelawsthatwillbeproposedinthisreport?
Thepotentialforeconomicincentive,andrivalry,issomuchgreaterthatreviewingtherulesofthegameonthebasisofprinciples,beforetheinstitutionalarrangementsaresetinawaythatwouldclearlywouldfavoronespacefaringnationoveranother,seemsprudentaswellasappropriate.
Somespaceagencieswouldliketousethemoonasasteppingstoneformissionstotheotherplanetsofthesolarsystem.TheUnitedStatesingeneralandNASAinparticularisinclinedtowardthisview.CurrentNASApolicyistofocusonthemoonasatestbedforMarsmissions.Otherspaceagenciestendtobemoreinterestedinthemoonforitsownsakeorasaresourcerepository.Somespaceagenciesjustdonotwanttobeleftoutofthemovementintospace,soforthemparticipationinbuildingspacestationsandlunarbasesareequallyinteresting.
Themoonshouldbeofgreaterinterestasthereisawideconsensusthatitcanbeusedasarefuelingstation,providingliquidoxygenforspacecraftleavingEarthforoutersolarsystemdestinations.Itisalsoclearthatalunarbasewouldbeaplacewhereonecouldhelptesttheeffectsofprolongedexposuretoalow-gravity(butnotmicro-gravity)environmentonhumansandmachinery.Thusitcanbeaprovinggroundthatishelpfulinrefiningmethodsforthecolonizationofotherplanets.However,thisargumentcanbepushedtoofar,asMarsisverydifferentfromtheMoonandinmanywayswouldbeeasiertoinhabitgiventhatitisclosertoEarth’sgravityandhasanatmosphereaswellaswater.WhatMarslacksisacleareconomicmotivationforoccupation,sotheMoon,whichiscloserandeconomicallymoreinteresting,willcertainlybedevelopedfirst,despitethegreaterdifficultyoflivingandworkingthere.
So,thereisimportantresearchthatwillbedoneonthemoon,butthemoonisnotpurelyaresearchbed.Therearemanyeconomicavenuesthatonecanpursueonthemoon.Onceagrouphaslandedonthemoon,miningforferrousmetalsisasimpletaskthatcanyieldimportantresults.Thereisalsoanisotopeofgreatvalueonthemoon;He-3(ScienceDaily,1998).ThisisotopeofHeliumcould,andwillveryprobably,powertheEarthforcenturiesoncethefusiontechnologytouseitisavailable.He-3willbeabletofuelfusionreactorswhichareexpectedtobedevelopedwithinthenext40years.Fusionreactorsaremuchmorepowerfulthanthecurrentgenerationoffissionreactorsandhavebeenconsideredasthenextstepinenergyevolutionforalongtime.
WithallofthesenewopportunitiescomingtolightitiseasytoseewhymanycountriesareexcitedtoseemankindreturntotheMoontobuildabase,andwhyothersareafraidtobeleftout.Chinainparticularhasbeenveryforthcomingaboutitsplanstobeginconstructionofamoonbaseassoonaspossible(Elliott).
TheoriginalspacepropertytreatieswerewrittentodefusetheemergingandpotentiallyveryexpensivespaceracethatwaspartoftheUSA-SovietUnioncoldwar.Thegoalwastoreducetherangeofpotentialareasofconflictand,inparticular,protecttheUnitedStatesandRussiafromeachotherbypreventingthemfromputtingnuclearweaponsinspaceandonthemoon.Theabilitytoclaimportionsofthemoonastheirown,asaspoiloftheColdWar,wouldhaveledtothemilitarizationofspaceandpossiblearmedconflictontheMoon.Havethetimeschangedenoughthatanewtreatyneedstobewritten,whichallowsentrepreneursandinternationalpoliticalandeconomiccompetitiontodrivethedevelopmentoftheMoon,withinalegalframework,oristheoriginalOuterSpaceTreatystillwisepolicy?
Thisisthecentralquestionofthecurrentreport,andweviewitasarisinginthecontextofanewspacerace,thistimeonewithlongtermeconomicadvantageratherthangeo-politicsandmilitarystrategydrivingit.
Chinahasthemostambitiousandaggressiveplantoreachthemoonby2010(Elliott),thoughmostobserversdonotexpectacrewtolanduntilaround2018.Eitherway,thegeneralviewisthattheChinesewillbeontheground-beforetheUSAreturns.Asofnow,theUnitedStateshassetagoalofreturningforthefirsttimein2020,with2missionsayearforthenextdecadeenvisionedatpresent.ThelackoffundingincreasesforNASAismakingeventhatbenchmarkyearasthegoalforthefirstlunarlandinglookunreasonable,especiallygiventhattheISS(InternationalSpaceStation)isnotyetcompletedandisstillconsumingresources.WiththeUnitedStates'plannedlaunchesbeingsofaroff,manyarenotawareofthefastpacethatChinaissettingfortheSecondSpaceRace.Ifactionisnottakensoonitwillbetoolatetorevieworchangethelawsthatapplytopropertyandminingonthemoon.Inourview,thatwouldbeunfortunate,especiallyforthosethatwouldliketoseethemoondevelopedbytheprivatesector,basedonmultinationalentrepreneurialventures,ratherthanbycompetingnationalspaceagencies.Investmentbyprivatesectorcapitalistsisdiscouragedbythecurrentlegalregimeevenmorethantheactionsofstates,butthecurrentrulesalsohampertheactionsofstatesintentondevelopingthemoonaspartofasearchforresources.
2)ValuableRegions
Examiningthevalueofwhatisatstakeisagoodplacetobeginthinkingabouttheq
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