Introduction to Romanticism.docx
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Introduction to Romanticism.docx
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IntroductiontoRomanticism
IntroductiontoRomanticism
Romanticismhasverylittletodowiththingspopularlythoughtofas"romantic,"althoughlovemayoccasionallybethesubjectofRomanticart.Rather,itisaninternationalartisticandphilosophicalmovementthatredefinedthefundamentalwaysinwhichpeopleinWesternculturesthoughtaboutthemselvesandabouttheirworld.
HistoricalConsiderations
ItisoneofthecuriositiesofliteraryhistorythatthestrongholdsoftheRomanticMovementwereEnglandandGermany,notthecountriesoftheromancelanguagesthemselves.ThusitisfromthehistoriansofEnglishandGermanliteraturethatweinherittheconvenientsetofterminaldatesfortheRomanticperiod,beginningin1798,theyearofthefirsteditionofLyricalBalladsbyWordsworthandColeridgeandofthecompositionofHymnstotheNightbyNovalis,andendingin1832,theyearwhichmarkedthedeathsofbothSirWalterScottandGoethe.However,asaninternationalmovementaffectingallthearts,Romanticismbeginsatleastinthe1770'sandcontinuesintothesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,laterforAmericanliteraturethanforEuropean,andlaterinsomeofthearts,likemusicandpainting,thaninliterature.Thisextendedchronologicalspectrum(1770-1870)alsopermitsrecognitionasRomanticthepoetryofRobertBurnsandWilliamBlakeinEngland,theearlywritingsofGoetheandSchillerinGermany,andthegreatperiodofinfluenceforRousseau'swritingsthroughoutEurope.
TheearlyRomanticperiodthuscoincideswithwhatisoftencalledthe"ageofrevolutions"--including,ofcourse,theAmerican(1776)andtheFrench(1789)revolutions--anageofupheavalsinpolitical,economic,andsocialtraditions,theagewhichwitnessedtheinitialtransformationsoftheIndustrialRevolution.ArevolutionaryenergywasalsoatthecoreofRomanticism,whichquiteconsciouslysetouttotransformnotonlythetheoryandpracticeofpoetry(andallart),buttheverywayweperceivetheworld.Someofitsmajorpreceptshavesurvivedintothetwentiethcenturyandstillaffectourcontemporaryperiod.
Imagination
Theimaginationwaselevatedtoapositionasthesupremefacultyofthemind.Thiscontrasteddistinctlywiththetraditionalargumentsforthesupremacyofreason.TheRomanticstendedtodefineandtopresenttheimaginationasourultimate"shaping"orcreativepower,theapproximatehumanequivalentofthecreativepowersofnatureorevendeity.Itisdynamic,anactive,ratherthanpassivepower,withmanyfunctions.Imaginationistheprimaryfacultyforcreatingallart.Onabroaderscale,itisalsothefacultythathelpshumanstoconstitutereality,for(asWordsworthsuggested),wenotonlyperceivetheworldaroundus,butalsoinpartcreateit.Unitingbothreasonandfeeling(Coleridgedescribeditwiththeparadoxicalphrase,"intellectualintuition"),imaginationisextolledastheultimatesynthesizingfaculty,enablinghumanstoreconciledifferencesandoppositesintheworldofappearance.ThereconciliationofoppositesisacentralidealfortheRomantics.Finally,imaginationisinextricablyboundupwiththeothertwomajorconcepts,foritispresumedtobethefacultywhichenablesusto"read"natureasasystemofsymbols.
Nature
"Nature"meantmanythingstotheRomantics.Assuggestedabove,itwasoftenpresentedasitselfaworkofart,constructedbyadivineimagination,inemblematiclanguage.Forexample,throughout"SongofMyself,"Whitmanmakesapracticeofpresentingcommonplaceitemsinnature--"ants,""heap'dstones,"and"poke-weed"--ascontainingdivineelements,andhereferstothe"grass"asanatural"hieroglyphic,""thehandkerchiefoftheLord."Whileparticularperspectiveswithregardtonaturevariedconsiderably--natureasahealingpower,natureasasourceofsubjectandimage,natureasarefugefromtheartificialconstructsofcivilization,includingartificiallanguage--theprevailingviewsaccordednaturethestatusofanorganicallyunifiedwhole.Itwasviewedas"organic,"ratherthan,asinthescientificorrationalistview,asasystemof"mechanical"laws,forRomanticismdisplacedtherationalistviewoftheuniverseasamachine(e.g.,thedeisticimageofaclock)withtheanalogueofan"organic"image,alivingtreeormankinditself.Atthesametime,Romanticsgavegreaterattentionbothtodescribingnaturalphenomenaaccuratelyandtocapturing"sensuousnuance"--andthisisastrueofRomanticlandscapepaintingasofRomanticnaturepoetry.Accuracyofobservation,however,wasnotsoughtforitsownsake.Romanticnaturepoetryisessentiallyapoetryofmeditation.
SymbolismandMyth
SymbolismandmythweregivengreatprominenceintheRomanticconceptionofart.IntheRomanticview,symbolswerethehumanaestheticcorrelativesofnature'semblematiclanguage.Theywerevaluedtoobecausetheycouldsimultaneouslysuggestmanythings,andwerethusthoughtsuperiortotheone-to-onecommunicationsofallegory.Partly,itmayhavebeenthedesiretoexpressthe"inexpressible"--theinfinite--throughtheavailableresourcesoflanguagethatledtosymbolatonelevelandmyth(assymbolicnarrative)atanother.
OtherConcepts:
Emotion,LyricPoetry,andtheSelf
OtheraspectsofRomanticismwereintertwinedwiththeabovethreeconcepts.Emphasisontheactivityoftheimaginationwasaccompaniedbygreateremphasisontheimportanceofintuition,instincts,andfeelings,andRomanticsgenerallycalledforgreaterattentiontotheemotionsasanecessarysupplementtopurelylogicalreason.Whenthisemphasiswasappliedtothecreationofpoetry,averyimportantshiftoffocusoccurred.Wordsworth'sdefinitionofallgoodpoetryas"thespontaneousoverflowofpowerfulfeelings"marksaturningpointinliteraryhistory.Bylocatingtheultimatesourceofpoetryintheindividualartist,thetradition,stretchingbacktotheancients,ofvaluingartprimarilyforitsabilitytoimitatehumanlife(thatis,foritsmimeticqualities)wasreversed.InRomantictheory,artwasvaluablenotsomuchasamirroroftheexternalworld,butasasourceofilluminationoftheworldwithin.Amongotherthings,thisledtoaprominenceforfirst-personlyricpoetryneveraccordeditinanypreviousperiod.The"poeticspeaker"becamelessapersonaandmorethedirectpersonofthepoet.Wordsworth'sPreludeandWhitman's"SongofMyself"arebothparadigmsofsuccessfulexperimentstotakethegrowthofthepoet'smind(thedevelopmentofself)assubjectforan"epic"enterprisemadeupoflyriccomponents.ConfessionalprosenarrativessuchasGoethe'sSorrowsofYoungWerther(1774)andChateaubriand'sRene(1801),aswellasdisguisedautobiographicalversenarrativessuchasByron'sChildeHarold(1818),arerelatedphenomena.TheinteriorjourneyandthedevelopmentoftheselfrecurredeverywhereassubjectmaterialfortheRomanticartist.Theartist-as-heroisaspecificallyRomantictype.
ContrastsWithNeoclassicism
Consequently,theRomanticssoughttodefinetheirgoalsthroughsystematiccontrastwiththenormsof"Versaillesneoclassicism."Intheircriticalmanifestoes--the1800"Preface"toLyricalBallads,thecriticalstudiesoftheSchlegelbrothersinGermany,thelaterstatementsofVictorHugoinFrance,andofHawthorne,Poe,andWhitmanintheUnitedStates--theyself-consciouslyassertedtheirdifferencesfromthepreviousage(theliterary"ancienregime"),anddeclaredtheirfreedomfromthemechanical"rules."CertainspecialfeaturesofRomanticismmaystillbehighlightedbythiscontrast.Wehavealreadynotedtwomajordifferences:
thereplacementofreasonbytheimaginationforprimaryplaceamongthehumanfacultiesandtheshiftfromamimetictoanexpressiveorientationforpoetry,andindeedallliterature.Inaddition,neoclassicismhadprescribedforarttheideathatthegeneraloruniversalcharacteristicsofhumanbehaviorweremoresuitablesubjectmatterthanthepeculiarlyindividualmanifestationsofhumanactivity.FromatleasttheopeningstatementofRousseau'sConfessions,firstpublishedin1781--"IamnotmadelikeanyoneIhaveseen;IdarebelievethatIamnotmadelikeanyoneinexistence.IfIamnotsuperior,atleastIamdifferent."--thisviewwaschallenged.
Individualism:
TheRomanticHero
TheRomanticsassertedtheimportanceoftheindividual,theunique,eventheeccentric.Consequentlytheyopposedthecharactertypologyofneoclassicaldrama.Inanotherway,ofcourse,Romanticismcreateditsownliterarytypes.Thehero-artisthasalreadybeenmentioned;therewerealsoheaven-stormingtypesfromPrometheustoCaptainAhab,outcastsfromCaintotheAncientMarinerandevenHesterPrynne,andtherewasFaust,whowinssalvationinGoethe'sgreatdramafortheveryreasons--hischaracteristicstrivingfortheunattainablebeyondthemorallypermittedandhisinsatiablethirstforactivity--thatearlierhadbeenviewedasthecomponentsofhistragicsin.(ItwasinfactShelley'sopinionthatSatan,inhisnobledefiance,wastherealheroofMilton'sParadiseLost.)
Instyle,theRomanticspreferredboldnessovertheprecedingage'sdesireforrestraint,maximumsuggestivenessovertheneoclassicalidealofclarity,freeexperimentationoverthe"rules"ofcomposition,genre,anddecorum,andtheypromotedtheconceptionoftheartistas"inspired"creatoroverthatoftheartistas"maker"ortechnicalmaster.AlthoughinbothGermanyandEnglandtherewascontinuedinterestintheancientclassics,forthemostparttheRomanticsalliedthemselveswiththeveryperiodsofliteraturethattheneoclassi
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