AP Biology Review Notesgooch.docx
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AP Biology Review Notesgooch.docx
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APBiologyReviewNotesgooch
APBiologyReviewNotes
Chapters2-3
ChemistryandWater
Matter–anythingthattakesupspaceandhasmass
Element-mostcommonC,H,O,N=96%oflivingthings
Compound–twoormoreelements,H2O,NaCl
Traceelements–requiredbyorganismsinverysmallquantities
Atoms–protons(+innucleus),neutrons(neutralinnucleus),electrons(-inorbital)
Atomicnumber–numberofprotons
Massnumber–numberofprotonsandneutrons
Isotopes–differentnumberofneutrons–doesnotchangecharge–differentmassnumber
Bonding
Ionic–giveandtake
Covalent–share
Hydrogen–onlybetweenhydrogenandoxygen,nitrogen,etc.Weak–attach,detach,attach,detach
Water
WaterisPOLAR–(Unequalpullofelectrons)Differenceincharges.
Hydrogenispositiveandoxygenisnegative.
Propertiesofwater:
Cohesion–sticky(toitself).Transpiration(watertowater)
Adhesion–Sticky(tootherthings)likewatertowindshield
Surfacetension–waterstriderswalkonwater
Specificheat–theamountofenergyittakestoraisethetemp.1degreeCelsius.HighSpecificHeat!
Moderationoftemperature
Evaporativecooling–whenwaterevaporatesittakesheatwithit(sweattocoolhumanbody)
Insulationofbodiesofwaterbyfloatingice–iceislighterthanliquidwater.
Importantsolvent–somethingelseisdissolvedinasolvent
Solution–solventandsolute(whatisbeingdissolved)
3hydrogenbondsperwatermolecule
pH–amountofhydrogenions(H+)andhydroxideions(OH-)
neutralis7(purewater)
acid–increaseofhydrogenions,lessthan7
base–increaseofhydroxide,morethan7
buffer–minimizeschangesinpH
Chapter4
Organicchemistry–hasCARBON
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
NucleicAcids
Carboncanmake4bonds(single,doubleortriplebonds).
Has4valenceelectrons
Isomer–samemolecularformula–differentarrangement
Hydrocarbon–organicmoleculesconsistingofonlycarbonandhydrogen
Functionalgroups
Hydroxyl(alcohol)C-OHcarbonattachedtooxygenattachedtohydrogen
CarbonylC=OCarbondoublebondoxygen
IftheC=Oisinthemiddleofacarbonchain,itiscalledakeytone
IftheC=Oisattheend–itisanaldehyde
Carboxyl–carbonylandhydroxylC=O
OH
Amino–nitrogenbondedtotwohydrogenNH2
Phosphate–phosphatePO3
SulfhydrylSH
Chapter5
OrganicMacromolecules
Macromolecules
1-carbohydrates
2-lipids
3-proteins
4-nucleicacids
Polymer–manymonomersputtogether.
Monomer–oneunit
Putmonomerstogetherthroughtheprocessofdehydrationsynthesis(takewaterout,makethebond)–AKACondensationreactions
Breakpolymersapartthroughtheprocessofhydrolysis
(waterbreaking,addwatertobreakthebond)
Carbohydrates(1C:
2H:
1O)
4caloriespergram
Extracarbseatengetturnedintofat(longtermstorage)
Monosaccharide–onesugar(glucose,fructose,galactose)
Ribose(C5H10O5)
glucoseC6H12O6
disaccharide–twosugars
maltose–glucose/glucose
sucrose–glucose/fructose
lactose–glucose/galactose
polysaccharide–upto1,000monomers
Functions:
1.Energystorage
Starchisstorageinplants
Glycogenisstorageinanimals(muscle,liver)
2.StructuralSupport
Cellulose–plantcellwalls(undigestabletohumans)
Chitin–exoskeletonsofarthropods,andinfungi
Lipids(fats,triglycerides,phospholipids,steroids)
Hydrophobic(fearofwater)
Animalfunctions–insulationandbuoyancyinmarineandarticanimals.PLASMAMEMBRANES
Triglyceride–glyceroland3fattyacidchains(longchainsofcarbons)
saturated–nodoublebonds,solidatroomtemp,animalfat–lardbutter),animals,cardiovasculardisease
unsaturated–hasC=Cdoublebonds,plant,fish,vegi(liquidatroomtemp)(cornoil,oliveoil)
9caloriespergram
Atherosclerosis–fatbuildupinarteries
Phospholipid
Glycerolandphosphateandtwofattyacidchains
Headregionisglycerolandphosphate–hydrophilic(attractedtowater)CELLMEMBRANE
Tailregion–onesaturateandoneunsaturatedfattyacidchain.Hydrophobic
Steroid–fourfuzedrings.Manyhormones–producedfromcholesterol
Functions:
Energystorage–twiceasmanycaloriespergramthancarbs
Protectionofvitalorgans.Insulation
Proteins
Cwithacarboxylgroup,aminogroup,hydrogenatomandanRgroup
Usedforstructure,signaling,defense
4caloriespergram
50%ofcell
Aminoacidsarethemonomers
Aminoacid–aminogroupandcarboxylgroup.20differentsidechains.(Rgroup)
Dipeptide–twoaminoacidsformedbydehydrationsynthesis
Peptidebond–betweentwoaminoacids
Polypeptide–manya.a’s
Shape–
Primary–sequenceofaminoacids
Secondary–interactionofhydrogenbonds,alphahelixorbetapleatedsheet
Teriary–interactionbetweenthesecondarystructure.(globular–threedimensional)
Quarternary–twoormorepolypeptidechains.Multi-subunitprotein–Examples:
hemoglobin,DNApolymerase,collagen
Denaturation–pH,SaltConcentration,Temp,toxiccompounds
NucleicAcids
DNA–Deoxyribonucleicacid
RNA–ribonucleicacid
Nucleotide
Nitrogenousbase(adenine,thymine,cytosine,quinine,anduracil)
Pentosesugar(deoxyribose,orribose)
Phosphategroup
DNA
Heredity
Doublestranded
RNA
Singlestranded
Chapter6Cells
Thingstoknowfortoday:
Thedifferencesbetweenprokaryoticandeukaryoticcells.
Thestructureandfunctionoforganellesfoundinbothplantsandanimals.
Thestructureandfunctionoforganellesfoundineitherplantoranimalcellsonly.
Cytology–studyofcells.
Cytoplasm–insideportionofthecell
Cytosol–fluidwithincell
Prokaryotesvs.Eukaryotes
DomainsBacteriaandArchaeaareprokaryotic.
Theotherdomain,Eukarya,whichincludeskingdoms:
animals,fungi,plants,andprotists–areeukaryotic
Prokaryotes:
consideredfirstformoflife
1.Chromosomesaregroupedtogetherinaregioncalledthenucleoid,butthereisnonuclearmembrane.Thereisnotruenucleus.
2.Nomembrane-boundedorganellesarefoundinthecytosol.(freeRibosomesarefound)
3.Eukaryoticcellsare10-100timeslargerthanprokaryoticcells
4.Hasacellwallexternaltoplasmamembrane.Doesnotcontainphospholipidsortransmembraneproteins.
5.Hasacapsule–liesoutsideofcellwall(carb.)
Eukaryoticcells:
1.HaveaNucleus!
Chromosomesarefoundinamembranecalledthenucleus.
2.Manymembrane-boundorganellesarefoundinthecytoplasm.
3.Onaverage,eukaryotesaremuchlargerthanprokaryotes.
BothAnimalandPlantCells
1.Plasmamembrane–
Formstheboundaryforacell
Selectivelypermeable(letscertainthingsinandoutofthecell)
Madeupofphospholipids,proteinsandcarbohydrates.
2.Nucleus–
ContainsDNA
Largersize–noticeable
Doublemembrane
Containsporesthatcontrolwhatdoesinandout
ContinuouswithRoughER
Chromatin–complexofDNAandproteininthenucleus.Chromatincondensesintochromosomes(duringprophaseofmitosis/meiosis)
Nucleolus–regioninnucleuswhereribosomalRNAisformed.
3.Ribosomes–
Sitesofproteinsynthesis
Havelargeandsmallsubunits
If“free”floating–proteinsmadeareintendedforinsidethecell.
If“bound”(attachedtoroughendoplasmicreticulum)proteinsmadewillexportthecellorbeusedinthecellmembrane.
4.EndoplasmicReticulum(ER)
Morethanhalfthetotalmembranestructureinmanycells.
Networkofmembranesandsacswhoseinternalareaiscalledthecisternalspace.
SmoothER(noribosomes)-synthesisoflipids,metabolismofcarbohydrates,anddetoxificationofdrugsandpoisons.
RoughER(hasribosomes–appears“rough”)–proteinsaresecretedout(leavecell).ProteinsgotoGolgibywayoftransportvesicles.
5.GolgiApparatus-likethepostalsystem.
Proteinsfromthetransportvesiclesaremodified,store,andshipped.
Consistsofflattenedsacsofmembranes,againcalledcisternae,arrangedinstacks.Golgistackshavepolarity–thecisfacereceivesvesicles,whereasthetransfaceshipsvesicles.
6.Mitochondria-(powerhouse)
Siteofcellularrespiration(ATPiscreated)
Enclosedbyadoublemembrane-theinnermembranehasinfoldscalledcristae.
7.Peroxisomes–
single-membrane-boundcompartments
transferhydrogenfromcompoundstooxygen,producinghydrogenperoxide(H2O2).Detoxifiesalcohol
Breakdownfattyacidsthatgetsenttomitochondriaforfuel
8.Cytoskeleton–
Networkofproteinfibersthatrunthroughoutthecytoplasm.
Providessupport,motility,andregulatingsomebiochemicalactivities.
Threetypesofcytoskeletonfibers:
a.Microtubules:
madeoftheproteintubulin
largestofcytoskeletonfibers
shapeandsupportthecell
serveastracksalongwhichorganellesequippedwithmotormoleculescanmove
separatechromosomesduringmitosisandmeiosis
(formingthespindle)
structuralcomponentsofciliaandflagella(found
primarilyinanimalcells.)
b.Microfilaments:
composedoftheproteinactin
Muchsmallerthanmicrotubules
functioninsmallerscalesupport
Whencoupledwiththemotormoleculemyosin,microfilamentscanbeinvolvedwithmovement.(amoeboidmovement,musclecells)
c.Intermediatefilaments:
Slightlylargerthanmicrofilamentsandsmallerthanmicrotubules.
morepermanentfixturesinthecell
importantinmaintainingtheshapeofthecellandfixingthepositionofcertainorganelles.
9.Centrosomes–
Regionlocatednearthenucleus,fromwhichmicrotubulesgrow(theareaisalsocalledthemicrotubuleorganizingcenter.)
Centrosomescontaincentriolesinanimalcells.
AnimalCellsOnly:
Lysosomes–
Membrane-boundsacsofhydrol
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