建立核心员工保留模型新心理契约的再考虑外文翻译.docx
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建立核心员工保留模型新心理契约的再考虑外文翻译.docx
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建立核心员工保留模型新心理契约的再考虑外文翻译
建立核心员工保留模型:
新心理契约的再考虑外文翻译
原文:
Towardsacontingentmodelofkeystaffretention:
Thenewpsychologicalcontractreconsidered
GregoryLee
Theoriesandevidenceofwidespreadchangesinemploymentrelationshipsaboundinliterature.Theorganizationalenvironmentisincreasinglycharacterisedbymandatesofflexibility,reorganization,reengineeringanddownsizing.Asaresult,traditionalperceptionsofwhatisowedbetweenanemployeeandanorganizationaresubjecttoreappraisal.Suchperceptionsareencapsulatedbytheconceptofthe‘psychologicalcontract’.Evidencesuggeststhatinthetransientglobalbusinessenvironment,thepsychologicalcontractofemployeesandorganizationalrepresentativesmaybeshiftingtowardsafarmoretransactionalparadigm.Transactionalcontractsdescribeperceptionsthatemploymentobligationsaremoreshort-term,workcontentbasedandlessrelational.Howeverinthecaseofkeyemployeegroups,suchtransactionalrelationshipsmayconflictwithanorganisation’sneedtoretainitscoreskillsandknowledgethatformoneofitsonlytrulysustainablecompetitiveadvantages.Thereforedivergentandvariedpsychologicalcontractsincreasethedifficultyofdecisionsregardingthelong-termretentionofkeyemployees.Anexplanatorymodelisthereforepresentedhere,allowingforthevariouspermutationsandeffectsonkeystaffretentionthatmayarisefromsuchdifferingperceptions.Organisationalsolutionsandresearchpropositionsaresuggestedforfutureresearch.
Psychologicalcontractsandemployeeretention
Itshouldbenotedthat,inthiscontext,staff“retention”isaconceptnotonlyconcernedwithstemmingthedysfunctionalturnoverofkeyemployeesbutalsoequallyimportantwiththebehavioursandattitudesthatareevidencediftheystayFlowers&Hughes,1973.Itisimportantthatthosewhostayaredoingsofortherightreasons,andwiththerightattitudesandbehaviours.Aretentionplanthatdoesnotattendtobothrunstheriskofretainingemployeeswhomaynotwanttobethere,orevenstaydespitefeelingsofantipathyandfrustrationtowardstheorganization.Therefore,aretentionplanmustnotonlyretainemployeesbutalsoengagetheminawaythatleadstopositive,productiveattitudesandbehavioursfortheperiodofemployment.
Inthisregardespecially,perceivedobligationsandtheirconsequencesplayanimportantrole.Thepsychologicalcontractliesattheheartoftheemploymentrelationship.TheperceptionsofitstermsbybothemployeesandorganizationalagentsarelikelytodirectmuchoftheobservableattitudesandbehaviourwithinanemploymentrelationshipSchein,1980,includingturnoverandretention.
Theexactprocessesbywhichturnoverandretentionbehavioursareaffectedbypsychologicalcontractsseemtobevaried.PsychologicalcontractshaveforexamplebeenlinkedtocommitmentMillward&Hopkins,1998,organizationalcultureNicholson&Jhons,1985;seeSheridan,1992forimpactonturnoveraswellasbetrayaloftrustRobinson,1996;Robinson&Rousseau1994.Alltheseconstructshavelinkstobothturnoveranon-the-jobhebaviour.Empiricalresearchalsoconfirmsthatperceivedviolationsofthepsychologicalcontractincreaseintendedoractualturnover,andnegativelyaffectworkattitudesandbehaviourCavanaugh&Noe,1999;Robinson,1996;Robinson&Rousseau,1994;Turnley&Feldman,1999.
Thenatureoftheinteractionbetweenpsychologicalcontractsandturnovercangenerallybeexplainedbytheextenttowhichcontractsareperceivedasrelationalasopposedtotransactional.Bydefinition,relationalcontractsarethosewheremutualobligationsofalonger-termnatureareperceived,indicatingatendencytowardsretention.Transactionalcontractshoweverarethosewheremutualobligationsofamoreshort-termnatureareperceived,withtheabsenceoflong-termcommitments,thusindicatingatendencytowardsflexibilityandeasydisengagementRousseau,1990.Asdiscussednext,changesinemploymentcontractsappeartobeoccurringwithregardtotherelationalvs.transactionalbalance,withattendantconsequencesforstaffretention.
The“newpsychologicalcontract”
Priortoapproximatelythe1980s,organizationsperceivedlabourcompetitivenesstoexistinastableworkforcewithlifelongretentionofemployeesCappelli,1995;Horwitz,1991.Asaresult,manyorganizationsespeciallylargecorporationsactivelysoughttoinsulatetheirworkforcefromthedemandsofthemarketbyasomewhatartificialsystemofinternalcontrolsandmechanismssuchaspromotionandrewardsystemsbasedonseniority.
The“old”psychologicalcontractthataccompaniedthisbeliefwasessentiallyasystemofperceivedrelationalobligations.Employersgenerallyofferedemployeesalmostabsolutejobsecurity,consistentrewards,careermanagementthroughsteadytrainingandadvancementandlongtermcompany-definedbenefitplansretirement,inexchangefortheexpectationthatemployeeswouldgivealltheirloyaltyandefforttothecompanyfortheverylong-termEhrlich,1994.Individualemployeesandorganizationaldecision-makersalikegenuinelyperceivedtheseasthemutualobligationsofahealthyemploymentrelationship,andactedaccordingly.
However,the1980slaterformanySouthAfricanorganizationssawthebeginningofbroadeconomicpressuressuchastheincreasingglobalizationofbusiness,changingdemographicsandinformationtechnology.TheseeffectivelyshiftedthesourcesofcompetitivenessEhrlich,1994;Kissler,1994.Organisationsimplementedincreasinglystringenteffortstoimprovetheirproductivity,includingwidespreadrestructuring,downsizingandflexibilitydrivesthatstrippedorganizationstoaminimumofstaff,withwidespreadterminationsofmid-managementinparticularCappelli,1992&1999;Horwitz&franklin,1996.Theemphasishasshiftedtooneofimumproductivity,commitmentandefficiencyfromaminimizedworkforceBurack,Burack,Miller,&Morgan,1994;Hiltrop,1996;butseeColdwell,1993.Inmanycases,longtermcompanyloyaltytoemployeeshasbeenreplacedbythedemandsofhavingaflexibleworkforcethatcanadjustquicklytomarketneeds,regardlessofwhoneedstobehired,terminatedorchanged.Essentially,labourmarketsappeartohavebecomefarmoremarket-drivenorexternalizedCappelli,1995.
Itshouldbenotedthatneithertheoldcontractnorthechangesarenecessarilyrepresentativeofallorevenmostcompanies.However,wheretheyhaveoccurred,thewholesalereductionofjobstabilityessentiallyrewrotetheperceivedobligationsofpsychologicalcontracts.Employershadmadeitclearthroughactionthat,withthenewbusinessenvironment,theycouldnolongerbeexpectedtooweemployeesthesameobligationsthathadpreviouslybeenperceivedascoretotheemploymentcontract.Employees,initiallyshockedanddepressed,havetovaryingdegreesrespondedbyadjustingtheirownperceptionsofmutualobligations.Literaturereportstherealizationbymanyemployeesthattheymustdiscardtheoldassumptionsofmutualloyaltyandtosomeextenttakeresponsibilityfortheirowncareers,withoutdependenceonanyoneorganizationTornow,1998;Hardijzer,2000Practitionersandacademicshavethereforeobservedandhypothesizedthebirthofawholenewpsychologicalcontract,withsignificantlydifferentperceivedobligationsonbothsidesoftheemploymentrelationshipKissler,1994;Robinson&Rpisseai.1994.
Thenewpsychologicalcontractcanbedescribedsimplyasamovementtowardsafarmoretransactionalpsychologicalcontract,andlessrelianceonrelationallongtermobligationsCavanaugh&Noe,1999.Thisrelationshipisoneofself-relianceforemployees-ithasbeendescribedasashiftfrompaternalismwheretheorganizationregulatesandprotectstheentirelabourrelationshiptopartnershipemployeesassumesignificantresponsibilityfortheircareersandjobs.
Withtheemphasisonself-relianceandpartnershipincreatingvalue,severalchangesinhumanresourcesystemshavebeenobservedincompaniesseeHorwitz&Erskine,1995andHorwitz&Franklin,1996forSouthAfricanparallels.Organisationalformshavebecomemorefastandflexible,withnarrowlydefinedjobsincreasinglygivingwaytoteamwork,projectorientationsandflathierarchiesamongstotherinnovationsBridges,1994.Thispushesresponsibilityforcontributionmoreontoemployees,whoalsogainmoreinterestingandenrichingworkbybeingincreasinglyempoweredwithstrategicinformation,autonomy,rotationsandoftensomeflexibilityinworktimesandcontentWaterman,waterman&Collard,1994.Staffingforsuchsystemsisincreasinglybasedonshort-termstrategyO’Reilly,1994,allowingforflexiblehiring,firingandchangingofemployeesaswellascontingentstaffingasneededdespitequestionsastotheefficacyofthisinateambasedenvironment,Milner,1995.Organisationsarelessabletodevelopcareersovertime,andareincreasinglybecoming‘buy’typefirmsthathireorfiretalentasneeded.Asaresult,careerdevelopmentandconceptsofjobtenurehavechangedsignificantly.EmployeesareexpectedtobemoreresponsiblefortheirowncareersWatermanetal.,1994,withthehelpoforganisationsbutwithoutexpectationsoflong-termjobsecurityresearchershavethusobservedshiftsinemployeeloyaltyfromthecompanytotheprofessionorcareerCavanaugh&Noe,1999.Organisationswillhelpemployeesbemore‘employable’inthegeneralworkplacebyprovidinginteresting,enrichingandproductivework,coachingandmentoring,careerguidance,empowermentandaidinacquisitionofgenericskillstrainingisincreasinglyuptoemployeesbutmoreportable.Long-termretentionisthereforeincreasinglyunlikelywheretheseconc
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