ConversationAnalysis邮箱材料.docx
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ConversationAnalysis邮箱材料.docx
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ConversationAnalysis邮箱材料
ConversationAnalysis
Background:
Anapproachtothestudyoftalk-in-interactionthatdevelopedasafieldofstudyinthe1960s.
Itbeganinsociologyasareactiontothetraditionalviewoflanguageasamerereflectionofinternaldispositions.
Itwaspredicatedonasocioculturalperspectiveoflanguageassocialaction,assertedthatindividualsocialactorscontinuallyproducesocialorderinthecontextsofsocialaction:
ininteractionwitheachother,throughtheuseofvariousdevicesormeans,displaytheirunderstandingofwhatistakingplacewiththeirco-interactants.
Scholars:
sociologists:
H.Sacks,E.A.Schegloff,G.Jefferson:
concernwithsocialinteraction,buthelpfulfortheanalysisofdiscoursestructure.
Approach:
basedonnaturallyoccurringcommunicativeactivities,dataarecollectedviaaudioandvideorecordingsofinteractions,thentranscribedandanalysedforparticularresourcesusedtorecognize,produceandcoordinatetheirlocallysituatedactionswitheachother.
Analyticfocus:
extralinguisticfactorslikebodyposition,eyegaze,andparalinguisticfeatureslikerhythm,intonation,andspeedconsideredasmeaningfulresourcesinadditiontolinguisticfeaturesfororderedinteractions.
Clarificationofbasicterms:
Theexchangestructureapproachlookedatdiscourseasapredeterminedsequence.Itstartedwiththetheoryofapatterningofunits,andshowedhowwhatpeoplesayfitsthemodel,thusviewingconversationasaproduct.
Conversationanalysis(CA)takesabottom-upapproach:
startingwiththeconversationitself,itletsthedatadictateitsownstructure.CAlooksatconversationasalinearongoingevent,thatunfoldslittlebylittleandimpliesthenegotiationofcooperationbetweenspeakersalongtheway,thusviewingconversationasaprocess.
DA:
takestheconceptsandtermsoflinguisticsandexaminestheirroleinrealdata,CAtakesrealdataandexaminesthelanguageanddemonstratesthatconversationissystematicallystructured.differsinmethodologyfromCA.
Conversation:
Conversationisdiscoursemutuallyconstructedandnegotiatedintimebetweenspeakers;itsisusuallyinformalandunplanned.
Cook(1989:
51)saysthattalkmaybeclassedasconversationwhen:
1.Itisnotprimarilynecessitatedbyapracticaltask
2.Anyunequalpowerofparticipantsispartiallysuspended
3.Thenumberoftheparticipantsissmall
4.Turnsarequiteshort
5.Talkisprimarilyfortheparticipantsnotforanoutsideaudience
Form:
Ispeak---youspeak---Ispeak---youspeak,themostcommonkindofinteraction.
Participants:
A---B
A—B.C,D
B,C,D---A
Eg.Speechmaker---audience,lecturer---students(Q—A)
Function:
interactionalandtransactional(seetextbook)
Method:
ethnomethodology,pragmatics
Data:
naturalconversations
Scholars:
sociologists:
H.Sacks,E.A.Schegloff,G.Jefferson:
concernwithsocialinteraction,buthelpfulfortheanalysisofdiscoursestructure.
1)Turn-taking:
thechangeofspeakerduringconversation.
Turn:
theopportunitytospeakatsomepointduringaconversation;thebasicunitinconversation.Thelinguisticunits:
word,phrase,clause,sentence,sentencegroupsorlargerunits.
Underlyingrule:
Cooperationinconversationismanagedbyallparticipantsthroughturn-taking.Inmostcultures,generallyspeaking,onlyonepersonspeaksatatime:
speakerstaketurns,firstonetalkingandthenanother.Thereshouldbeatleastonesidespeakingeachtime.Whennoonespeaksormorearespeaking,sb,beginstoremedythesituation.
Floor:
thecurrentrighttospeakintheconversation.
TRP:
Apointinaconversationwhereachangeofturnispossibleiscalledatransitionalrelevanceplace:
endoftheclauseorsentence.
Interruption:
WhenspeakersdonotwanttowaituntiltheTRP,thisiscalledaninterruption.
Forexample:
Byes.Tell,mewhatit//isyouwant
A//umm.Um,mayIfirstofallrequesttheintroductionplease?
Overlap:
Whenhearerspredictthattheturnisabouttobecompletedandtheycomeinbeforeitis,thisisanoverlap(indicatedby=).
Forexample:
Interviewee:
Butnotnomore.Yeah=
Interviewer:
=Whathappenedtothem?
Question:
Whyarethereneitheroverlapsnorinterruptionsintheorderlyclassroom,doctor-patientexchangeandquizshow?
(Reasons:
thepowerstructureandtheconventions:
studentsarenotsupposedtointerrupttheteacherbuttowaituntiltheturnishandedtothem;quizcontestantsdonotusuallychallengethequizmasterbutwaituntiltheyareaskedtospeak.
Lackofoverlapsandinterruptions:
thelanguageismore“tidy”thanreal-lifediscourse,andtheturnsarepre-planned.(inshows))
Turn-taking:
abasicspeech-exchangesystem,includingturn-constructionalcomponent,turn-allocationalcomponent,turn-takingrules.
Turn-takingcanbedescribedbyasetofruleswithorderedoptionsthatoperateonaturn-by-turnbasis,whichexplainswhyonlyonespeakerspeaksatatime,hownextspeakersareselected,whereandhowoverlapsareplaced,andhowperiodsofsilenceoccurwithinthetalkofonespeaker(apause)orbetweenthetalkoftwoormorespeakers(agap).
Turn-constructionalcomponents:
Sacks,etal:
1)Singlewords:
eg.Well,theyarenotcomin.
Who.(turn))
Pum,unlesstheyc’nfindsomebody.
2)phrases:
eg.A:
OhIhavethe---Ihaveoneclassintheevening.
B:
OnMondays?
(turn)
A:
Y–uh…Wednesday.
3)clauses:
eg.A:
Uhyoubeendownherebeforeyehhaveenche.
B:
WhenIwasintheuniversity.(turn)
A:
Wherethesidewalkis?
B:
Yeah.
A:
Whuritends,
B:
Goesallawayupthere?
Turn-takingRules:
Sacks:
oftenoccursintransitionalrelevanceplace,apossibleplaceorpointinaturnunitwherethehearerthinksaturnmightappear,ie,endofaclauseorsentence.
1)atthefirstTRPofanyturn:
a.atthepointafterthenominationmadebythespeaker:
b.withoutnomination,participantsselectthemselvesorthecurrentspeakermayalsokeeptalking.
c.Withoutspeakernominationorparticipantselfnomination,currentspeakerkeep(notnecessarily)talking.
2)atthefirstTRPofanyturn:
if1)aand1)bedonotoccur,1)cworks,while1)aand1)brepeatuntilturnchanges.
Conversationisanenterpriseinwhichonepersonspeaks,andanotherlistens.Discourseanalystswhostudyconversationnotethatspeakershavesystemsfordeterminingwhenoneperson’sturnisoverandthenextperson’sturnbegins.Thisexchangeofturnsor“floors”issignaledbysuchlinguisticmeansasintonation,pausing,andphrasing.Somepeopleawaitaclearpausebeforebeginningtospeak,butothersassumethat“windingdown”isaninvitationtosomeoneelsetotakethefloor.Whenspeakershavedifferentassumptionsabouthowturnexchangesaresignaled,theymayinadvertentlyinterruptorfeelinterrupted.Onetheotherhand,speakersalsofrequentlytaketheflooreventhoughtheyknowtheotherspeakerhasnotinvitedthemtodoso.
Listenershiptoomaybesignaledindifferentways.Somepeopleexpectfrequentnoddingaswellaslistenerfeedbacksuchas“mhm”,“uhuh”,and“yeah”.Lessofthisthanyouexpectcancreatetheimpressionthatsomeoneisnotlistening;morethanyouexpectcangivetheimpressionthatyouarebeingrushedalong.Forsome,eyecontactisexpectednearlycontinually;forothers,itshouldonlybeintermittent.Thetypeoflistenerresponseyougetcanchangehowyouspeak:
Ifsomeoneseemsuninterestedoruncomprehending(whetherornottheytrulyare),youmayslowdown,repeat,oroverexplain,givingtheimpressionyouare“talkingdown.”FrederickEricksonhasshownthatthiscanoccurinconversationsbetweenblackandwhitespeakers,becauseofdifferenthabitswithregardtoshowinglistenership.
Thenwhatisthedegreeofcontrolbythespeaker(Turnallocationalcomponents):
A.Nomination:
decidethespeakeranddiscoursetopicorcontent
Eg.Whatdoyouthink,John?
Johnprobablydisagreeswithmehere.
Johnmayhavebetterideas.
Whatdoyouthinkofthebook,John?
It’sanicebook,but….
B.Questionorrequesttoselectthenextspeaker:
Eg.Whowouldliketosaysomethingaboutit?
Cananyoneofyoutellmehowtodothat?
C.Self-selectionforcontinuation:
Eg.A:
….That’swhatIthinkofit.
B:
Well,I’dliketosayafewwordsaboutit…
Howtotaketheturn
TransitionRelevancePlace:
anypossiblechange-of-turnpointintheconversation.Itisrelatedtoasetofconventionsforgettingturns,keepingthem,orgivingthemaway.(localmanagementsystem).Soparticipantsneedtheabilitytoidentitypossiblecompletion.
Jefferson,3typesofabilitytogettheturn:
A.toaddcompletiontothepreviouscompleteutterance
B.toaddproposedcompletionatthesuitabletime.
C.Topredictthecompletion,andoverlapwiththespeaker.
Eg.A:
Theguywhodoesn’truntheracedoesn’twinit,buthedoesn’tloseit=
B:
=loseit.
Speakerwantstohold/keeptheturn:
A:
useutteranceincompletor(Sacks):
conjunctiveadvs:
but,and,however,besides,nevertheless,asaresult,ontheotherhand,thatistosay,whatismore,etc.
B:
useincompletionmarkers:
if,since,when,etc.twosentencesfollowing.
C:
usesomesegments:
(discussionoffactsoropinions)
I’dliketomaketwopoints,firstly,firstofall.
There’smorethanonewaytodothis—oneexamplewouldbe…
(preludestostorytelling)
Didn’tyouknowaboutMelvin?
—ohitwaslastOctober…
DidyouhearaboutCindy’snewcar?
—shegotitin…
D:
paralinguisticfeatures:
raisingvoice,tone,tempo,gestures,facialexpressions,actions,etc.
Strategiesinaskingandanswering:
relatedtoturn-takingmechanism:
Turn-starting
Turn-gaining/getting
Turn-keeping
Turn-offering
Closing
Eg.St
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