Second language acquisitionWord文档格式.docx
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Second language acquisitionWord文档格式.docx
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languageteaching.
Theacademicdisciplineofsecond-languageacquisitionisasubdisciplineof
appliedlinguistics.Itisbroad-basedandrelativelynew.Aswellasthevariousbranchesof
linguistics,second-languageacquisitionisalsocloselyrelatedtopsychology,cognitivepsychology,andeducation.Toseparatetheacademicdisciplinefromthelearningprocessitself,theterms
second-languageacquisitionresearch,
second-languagestudies,and
second-languageacquisitionstudies
arealsoused.SLAresearchbeganasaninterdisciplinaryfield,andbecauseofthisitisdifficulttoidentifyaprecisestartingdate.However,itdoesappeartohavedevelopedagreatdealsincethemid-1960s.[2]
Theterm
acquisitionwasoriginallyusedtoemphasizethesubconsciousnatureofthelearningprocess,[3]
butinrecentyears
learning
and
acquisitionhavebecomelargelysynonymous.
Second-languageacquisitioncanincorporate
heritagelanguagelearning,[4]
butitdoesnotusuallyincorporate
bilingualism.MostSLAresearchersseebilingualismasbeingtheendresultoflearningalanguage,nottheprocessitself,andseethetermasreferringtonative-likefluency.Writersinfieldssuchaseducationandpsychology,however,oftenusebilingualismlooselytorefertoallformsof
multilingualism.[5]
Second-languageacquisitionisalsonottobecontrastedwiththeacquisitionofa
foreignlanguage;
rather,thelearningofsecondlanguagesandthelearningofforeignlanguagesinvolvethesamefundamentalprocessesindifferentsituations.[6].
Therehasbeenmuchdebateaboutexactlyhowlanguageislearned,andmanyissuesarestillunresolved.Therearemanytheoriesofsecond-languageacquisition,butnoneareacceptedasacompleteexplanationbyallSLAresearchers.Duetotheinterdisciplinarynatureofthefieldofsecond-languageacquisition,thisisnotexpectedtohappenintheforeseeablefuture.
Contents
[hide]
∙1
History
∙2
Comparisonswithfirst-languageacquisition
∙3
Learnerlanguage
o3.1
Itemandsystemlearning
o3.2
Interlanguage
o3.3
Sequencesofacquisition
o3.4
Variability
o3.5
Languagetransfer
∙4
Factorscontributingtosuccessfulacquisition
o4.1
Externalfactors
▪4.1.1
Inputandinteraction
▪4.1.2
Socialaspects
o4.2
Internalfactors
▪4.2.1
Cognitiveapproaches
▪4.2.2
Socioculturalapproaches
▪4.2.3
Linguisticapproaches
∙5
Individualvariation
o5.1
Affectivefactors
∙6
Intheclassroom
∙7
Factorscontributingtoacquisitiondifficulty
o7.1
Phonology
o7.2
Grammar
o7.3
FornativeEnglishspeakers
∙8
Seealso
∙9
Notes
∙10
References
∙11
Furtherreading
∙12
Externallinks
[edit]History
AsSLAbeganasaninterdisciplinaryfield,itishardtopindownaprecisestartingdate.[2]
However,therearetwopublicationsinparticularthatareseenasinstrumentaltothedevelopmentofthemodernstudyofSLA:
PittCorder'
s1967essay
TheSignificanceofLearners'
Errors,andLarrySelinker'
s1972article
Interlanguage.Corder'
sessayrejectedabehavioristaccountofSLAandsuggestedthatlearnersmadeuseofintrinsicinternallinguisticprocesses;
Selinker'
sarticlearguedthatsecond-languagelearnerspossesstheirownindividuallinguisticsystemsthatareindependentfromboththefirstandsecondlanguages.[7]
Inthe1970sthegeneraltrendinSLAwasforresearchexploringtheideasofCorderandSelinker,andrefuting
behaviorist
theoriesoflanguageacquisition.Examplesincluderesearchinto
erroranalysis,studiesin
transitionalstages
ofsecond-languageability,andthe"
morphemestudies"
investigatingtheorderinwhichlearnersacquiredlinguisticfeatures.The70sweredominatedby
naturalisticstudiesofpeoplelearning
Englishasasecondlanguage.[7]
Bythe1980s,thetheoriesof
StephenKrashen
hadbecometheprominentparadigminSLA.Inhistheories,oftencollectivelyknownasthe
InputHypothesis,Krashensuggestedthatlanguageacquisitionisdrivensolelyby
comprehensibleinput,languageinputthatlearnerscanunderstand.Krashen'
smodelwasinfluentialinthefieldofSLAandalsohadalargeinfluenceonlanguageteaching,butitleftsomeimportantprocessesinSLAunexplained.Researchinthe1980swascharacterizedbytheattempttofillinthesegaps.SomeapproachesincludedLydiaWhite'
sdescriptionsoflearnercompetence,andManfredPienemann'
suseofspeechprocessingmodelsand
lexicalfunctionalgrammar
toexplainlearneroutput.Thisperiodalsosawthebeginningofapproachesbasedinotherdisciplines,suchasthepsychologicalapproachof
connectionism.[7]
The1990ssawahostofnewtheoriesintroducedtothefield,suchasMichaelLong'
interactionhypothesis,
MerrillSwain'
outputhypothesis,and
RichardSchmidt'
noticinghypothesis.However,thetwomainareasofresearchinterestwerelinguistictheoriesofSLAbasedupon
NoamChomsky'
universalgrammar,andpsychologicalapproachessuchas
skillacquisitiontheory
connectionism.Thelattercategoryalsosawthenewtheoriesof
processability
inputprocessing
inthistimeperiod.The1990salsosawtheintroductionof
socioculturaltheory,anapproachtoexplainsecond-languageacquisitionintermsofthesocialenvironmentofthelearner.[7]
Inthe2000sresearchwasfocusedonmuchthesameareasasinthe1990s,withresearchsplitintotwomaincampsoflinguisticandpsychologicalapproaches.VanPattenandBenatidonotseethisstateofaffairsaschanginginthenearfuture,pointingtothesupportbothareasofresearchhaveinthewiderfieldsof
linguistics
andpsychology,respectively.[7]
[edit]Comparisonswithfirst-languageacquisition
Peoplewholearnasecondlanguagedifferfromchildren
learningtheirfirstlanguage
inanumberofways.Perhapsthemoststrikingoftheseisthatveryfewadultsecond-languagelearnersreachthesamecompetenceasnativespeakersofthatlanguage.Childrenlearningasecondlanguagearemorelikelytoachievenative-likefluencythanadults,butingeneralitisveryrareforsomeonespeakingasecondlanguagetopasscompletelyforanativespeaker.Whenalearner'
sspeechplateausinthiswayitisknownasfossilization.
Inaddition,someerrorsthatsecond-languagelearnersmakeintheirspeechoriginateintheirfirstlanguage.Forexample,
Spanishspeakerslearning
English
maysay"
Israining"
ratherthan"
Itisraining"
leavingoutthe
subject
ofthesentence.
French
speakerslearningEnglish,however,donotusuallymakethesamemistake.ThisisbecausesentencesubjectscanbeleftoutinSpanish,butnotinFrench.[8]
Thisinfluenceofthefirstlanguageonthesecondisknownas
languagetransfer.
Also,whenpeoplelearnasecondlanguage,thewaytheyspeaktheirfirstlanguagechangesinsubtleways.Thesechangescanbewithanyaspectoflanguage,frompronunciationandsyntaxtogesturesthelearnermakesandthethingstheytendtonotice.[9]
Forexample,FrenchspeakerswhospokeEnglishasasecondlanguagepronouncedthe/t/soundinFrenchdifferentlyfrommonolingualFrenchspeakers.[10]Thiseffectofthesecondlanguageonthefirstled
VivianCook
toproposetheideaof
multi-competence,whichseesthedifferentlanguagesapersonspeaksnotasseparatesystems,butasrelatedsystemsintheirmind.[11]
[edit]Learnerlanguage
Learnerlanguage
isthewrittenorspokenlanguageproducedbyalearner.Itisalsothemaintypeofdatausedinsecond-languageacquisitionresearch.[12]
Muchresearchinsecond-languageacquisitionisconcernedwiththeinternalrepresentationsofalanguageinthemindofthelearner,andinhowthoserepresentationschangeovertime.Itisnotyetpossibletoinspecttheserepresentationsdirectlywithbrainscansorsimilartechniques,soSLAresearchersareforcedtomakeinferencesabouttheserulesfromlearners'
speechorwriting.[13]
[edit]Itemandsystemlearning
Therearetwotypesoflearningthatsecond-languagelearnersengagein.Thefirstis
itemlearning,orthelearningofformulaicchunksoflanguage.Thesechunkscanbeindividualwords,setphrases,orformulaslike
CanIhavea___?
Thesecondkindoflearningis
systemlearning,orthelearningofsystematicrules.[14]
[edit]Interlanguage
Mainarticle:
Originally,attemptstodescribelearnerlanguagewerebasedoncomparingdifferentlanguages
andon
analyzinglearners'
errors.However,theseapproachesweren'
tabletopredictalltheerrorsthatlearnersmadewhenintheprocessoflearningasecondlanguage.Forexample,Serbo-CroatspeakerslearningEnglishmaysay"
WhatdoesPatdoingnow?
"
althoughthisisnotavalidsentenceineitherlanguage.[15]
Toexplainthesekindofsystematicerrors,theideaoftheinterlanguage
wasdeveloped.[16]
Aninterlanguageisanemerginglanguagesysteminthemindofasecond-languagelearner.Alearner'
sinterlanguageisnotadeficientversionofthelanguagebeinglearnedfilledwithrandomerrors,norisitalanguagepurelybasedonerrorsintroducedfromthelearner'
sfirstlanguage.Rather,itisalanguageinitsownright,withitsownsystematicrules.[17]
Itispossibletoviewmo
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