办公自动化外文文献及译文.docx
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办公自动化外文文献及译文.docx
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办公自动化外文文献及译文
办公自动化外文文献及译文
毕业论文外文文献原文及译文学生姓名:
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2021年X月OldandNewModelsforOfficeAutomationElliotColeTheemerginggenerationofofficeautomationsystemscombinesnewandexistingsoftwareandprocedures.Whilemanagersmaybeabletoselectfromabroadarrayofsoftwaretools,theymayalsoberequiredtousecertainothers.Thisarticlediscussesorganizationdesignasthecontextforofficeautomation;maturecomputerbasedsystemsasoneapplicationoforganizationdesignvariables;andemergingofficeautomationsystemsasanotherapplicationofthosevariables.ThearticleconcludesthatManagementInformationSystemmodelsdevelopedformaturesystemsmaybehelpfulwheretheuseofsoftwareapplicationisrequiredfortheindividualworker;diffusionofinnovationmodelsrecentlydevelopedforcomputingsystemsmaybehelpfulwherethetypeofsoftwareisoptionalfortheindividualworker.Theemerginggenerationofofficeautomationsystemscombinesnewconceptsandcomponentswithexistingones.Whiletheremaybeacombinationoffirst-timeapplicationsforsomeorganizationalactivities,theremaybereplacementapplicationsforothers.Ourabilitytounderstandandplanforofficeautomationdependsontheavailabilityandadequacyofourmodels.Thisarticleexaminessomeoftheassumptionsunderlyingofficeautomation,andthenevaluatestheadequacyofcurrentmodelsappliedtotheanalysisandimplementationofboththefirst-timeandreplacementapplications.Thearticlebeginswithadiscussionofofficeautomation'scontextfactorsinorganizationdesign.Nextisadiscussionofmaturecomputer-basedinformationsystems,particularlyManagementInformationSystems(MIS),followedbytheirsimilaritiesanddifferentfromemerginginformationsystems.ThefinalsectionexaminestheuseofdiffusionofinnovationmodelsandtheirrelevancetoofficeautomationstudieswithinthescopeofInformationScience.OrganizationDesignOrganizationdesignisconcernedwiththestructureandfunctionoforganizations,andconsequentlyoccupiesacentralroleinofficeautomationactivities.Suchdesigninvolvestwobasicelements,thetypesofpositionsinorganizationsandcontrolovertaskstructure.Officeautomationsystemsassumethepresenceofboththeseelements.TypesofPersonnelComputershavebeenassistinghumansfornearly40years.Whatmakestheearlierusercommunitiesdifferentfromtheemergingcommunitiesisthelevelofpositionsthatareaffected.Nowmanagersarebecomingend-users.Inthepast,whitecollarworkershavebeenclassifiedasprofessional,managerial,andclerical,basedonthehorizontal(breadth)andvertical(depth)specializationoftheirtasks.Professionalpositionshavegreatverticalspecialization,i.e.,theyrequiregreatdepthofknowledgeinanarrowarea.Incontrast,managementpositionsrequiregreathorizontalspecialization,i.e.,theyrequiregreatbreadthofknowledgebutwithnarrowdepth.Managersareconsideredgeneralistsratherthanspecialists.Clericalpositionsarenarrowinbreadthanddepth.Thefirstcomputeruserswereprofessionals(scientists)whoappliedinformationtechnologytoextendthecapabilitiesoftheirworkteams.These“value-added“applications,touseLandau,Bair,andShalomterminology,includedsolvingcomplexmathematicalproblems.Today'scomputerusersroutinelyincludeabroadspectrumofprofessionalswhousethesetoolsinpureresearch,appliedresearch,andprofessionalpractice.Next,clericalpersonnelbecameusers.Computersappearedinfunctionalareasoforganizationswithlargeclericalstaffs,whatmancallsthefirstofficeautomationrevolution.Intheseareas,applicationsincludedtransactionprocessing,forexample,payroll,inventory,andorder-entry.AutomationwasintroducedprincipallyforwhatLandau,Bair,andShalomcall“costdisplacement“applications,savinglaborcostsbysubstitutingcapitalforlabor.Currently,theusercommunityisexpandingtoincludemanagementstaff.Fewmanagersinorganizationsofanysizehavebeenuntouchedbycomputerservicesandsystems.Ataminimum,theyhavereceivedcomputerprintoutreports.Atmost,theymayhaveusedsystemsthroughsomeintermediary.Intheemerginggenerationofofficeautomation,asMartinhasdescribed,managersareexpectedtobecomehands-onusersofanarrayofsoftware.Anobjectiveofthisgenerationofofficeautomationistoremovecertaintasksfrommanagerialandprofessionalpositionsbyreallocationtoacombinationofclericalpositionsandinformationprocessinghardwareandsoftware.Opensystemsmodelsoforganizations,discussedbyDanielinthisissueofPerspectives,providesanunderstandingofthesedesignissues.ControlTaskStructureTaskstructureincludesboth
(1)whatworkoneistoperform,and
(2)howoneistoperformit.Itisthe“how“whichistheprimaryfocushere.TotheClassicalManagementofschoolwhichwasprominentearlyinthiscentury,decidinghowworkwastobeperformedwasamanagementresponsibility,notmerelyamanagementprerogative.Followersofthisschoolofthoughtdirectedtheirattentionprimarilytotheproductionactivitiesofindustry.Responsibilityforstructuringthetasksforclericalworkersisstillgenerallyconsideredtorestwithmanagement.Manyofthetasksofthoseworkershavebeendescribedasroutine,standardized,structured,andconsequentlyeasilyrationalized,i.e.,separatedintoasetofsimplesteps.Itisthislastqualitythatfacilitatesautomatingthefunction.IntheHumanRelationsschoolofthought,developmentofparticipatorymanagementallowstheworkerstohaveaninputinthedesignoftheirtasks—evenasubstantialinput—buttheresponsibilityforgrantingandapprovingtheinputhasremainedwithmanagement.Ineffect,themanagerhasstandardizedtheworkprocessesofclericalandproductionlineworkers.Organizationshaveseveralmeansofassuringthattheyareabletoproduceanoutputwhichisconsistent.Amongthesemechanismsare:
(1)standardizationofprocess—theprocedureswhicharetobefollowedinperformingatask,
(2)standardizationofoutput—specificationswhicheachunitmustmeet,and(3)standardizationofskills—instructiononhowworkistobeperformed.Thisstandardizationextendstotheformsthatareused,thetoolsapplied,andthemannerinwhichtheyareapplied.Incontrast,themanagerisgivenabroadlatitudeovertheprocessestoperformhisorherjob.Theorganizationofone'sworkhasbeenconsideredaprerogativeofthemanager,althoughStressmanhaschallengedthisviewasameansoforganization'sbettermanagingitsinformationflow.Ineffect,thislatituderepresentsastandardizationofthe“what“ofamanager'swork,butnotofthe“how,“theprocesseswhichproducethisoutput.Theflexibilityofthemanager'schoiceofworkprocessesallowsforthedevelopmentofworkhabits,whichtotheexternalobservermayseemidiosyncratic.Thetoolsusedbythemanagerindraftingmemosandreports—whetherpencilandpaper,penandpaper,dictationmachine,ortypewriter—aregenerallyapersonalchoiceratherthananorganizationalmandate.Thisflexibilityhaslongallowedmanagement(andprofessionalstaff)tochoosetobringworkhome.Duringmediatransformations,secretarialstaffmayreformatinformationpreparedbythemanagertoconformtotheorganization'sformat,shouldoneexist.Forprofessionals,whattaskstheyperform,andhowthetasksaretobeperformedaresetoutincodesofconductwhichprovideformalandinformalguidelines.Thisisameansofexternalcontrolinstandardizingtheprocessoforganizationalwork.Professionalworkersalsoperformsometaskswhicharesimilartothoseofmanagerialstaff,e.g.,supervisingprojectsandpeople.Thesetasksmaybecontrolledbytheorganizationaccordingtoitsstandardizationofoutput.Insummary,differencesinthecontrolovertaskstructurecanbeseeninprofessional,managerial,andclericalpersonnel.Whilemanagerialandclericaltaskshavebeenlargelytheprovincesoftheirorganization—internallycontrolled—professionaltasksinvolvetheprofessionalsociety'sstandardsofacceptability,andthusareexternallycontrolled.Inthisrespect,theorganizationhasrelativelylesscontroloverthetaskstructureandworkprocessesforprofessionalstaffthanformanagerialandclericalstaff.Officeautomationisdesignedtohaveanimpactonthetaskstructure,i.e.,theprocessbywhichoneperformsanactivity.Thesedifferencesintaskstructurecontrolraisethepossibilityofitbeingamediatingvariableinofficeautomationmodels;differencesintaskstructurecontrolmayleadtoqualitativedifferencesinofficesystemdesigns.Computer-BasedInformationSystemsOfficeautomationincludesarangeofsystems,includingavarietyofsoftwareanddata.Thecombinationmayincludedatabaseswhichreceiveinputfrommanyorganizationalunitsandfunctionalareasaswellaspersonaldatabases.Somesystemsaredesignedtobeusedbymanyworkersinamandatoryandspecifiedmanneraspartofthejobrequirementsandasaconditionofemployment.Othersystemsmaybeusedtomechanizeataskattheoptionoftheuser;theuserisalsofreetoperformthattaskmanually.ExistingSystemswithRequiredUseManagementInformationSystems(MIS)areaprincipalclassofinformationsystemformodernorganizations.MIScollectsdataforadatabase,manipulatesit,andproducesreportstoabroadspectrumofmanagersconcernedwithdecisionmakingandaccountability.ManydataentrytasksaresmallcomponentsoflargerMIS,withglobaldatabasesspanningorganizationunitsandbeingcontinuallyupdated.Inorderforthesystemtoprocessinformationprop
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