0111Reading鸟鸣+滞育的作用+中世纪欧洲的犁和马.docx
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0111Reading鸟鸣+滞育的作用+中世纪欧洲的犁和马.docx
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0111Reading鸟鸣+滞育的作用+中世纪欧洲的犁和马
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Birdsong
Birdsongistheclassicexampleofhowgenes(hereditaryinformation)andenvironmentbothhaveacrucialroletoplayinthebehavioraldevelopmentofanimals.SincethepioneeringworkofW.H.Thorpeonchaffinches(acommonEuropeanbird),manyspecieshavebeenstudied,andithasbecomeclearboththatlearningplaysanimportantroleforallspeciesandalsothatthereareconstraintsonwhattheyareabletolearn.
Thorpewasabletoshowthatlearningfromotherswasinvolvedinchaffinchbirdsthroughaseriesofexperimentsonhand-rearedchicks(youngbirds).Asinmostotherspecies,onlythemalessing.Thorpefoundthat,ifheraisedyoungmalesintotalisolationfromallothers,thesongtheyproducedwasquitedifferentfromthatofanormaladult.Itwasabouttherightlengthandinthecorrectfrequencyrange.Itwasalsosplitupintoaseriesofnotesasitshouldbe.Butthesenoteslackedthedetailedstructurefoundinwildbirds,norwasthesongsplitupintodistinctphrasesasitusuallyis.Thissuggestedthatsongdevelopmentrequiressomesocialinfluence.Laterexperimentsinwhichresearchersplayedrecordingsofsongstoyoungbirdsshowedjusthowprecisethisinfluencewas:
manyofthemwouldlearntheexactpatternoftherecordingtheyhadheard.Aremarkablefeatureherewasthatbirdswereabletocopypreciselysongsthattheyonlyheardinthefirstfewweeksoflife,yettheydidnotsingthemselvesuntilabouteightmonthsold.Theyarethusabletostoreamemoryofthesoundwithintheirbrainandthenmatchtheirownoutputtotheirrecollectionofitwhentheymature.
Youngchaffinchesnormallylearnonlychaffinchsong,thoughThorpefoundtheycouldbetrainedtosingthesongofatreepipit(anothertypeofbird),whichisverysimilartothatoftheirownspecies.Ingeneral,however,theconstraintsonlearningwhichbirdshaveensurethattheyonlylearnsongsappropriatetothespeciestowhichtheythemselvesbelong.Theseconstraintsmaybeintheirbrain’scircuitry,theyoungbirdhatchingwitharoughideaofthesoundsthatitshouldcopy.Thecrudesongofabirdrearedinisolationgivessomecluesastowhatthisroughideamaybe:
thelength,thefrequencyrangeandthebreakingupintonotesareallaspectsofchaffinchsongsharedbetweennormalbirdsandthoserearedinisolation.Inothercasestheconstraintsaremoresocial,youngbirdsonlybeingpreparedtolearnfromindividualswithwhomtheyhavesocialinteractions.Thus,inanumberofspecies,ithasbeenfoundthattheywillnotcopyfromrecordings,butwilldosofromalivetutor.Insomecasesthismayoccurwhentheyareyoungbirds,butinothersthemainlearningperiodiswhentheysetuptheirterritoriesandinteractwithneighborsforthefirsttime,enablingthemtomatchtheirneighbor’ssongsandsocountersingwiththem.Whateverthenatureofthelearningrulesinaparticularspecies,thereisnodoubtthattheyareeffective;itisveryunusualtohearawildbirdsingingasongwhichisnottypicalofitsownspeciesdespitethemanydifferentsongswhichoftenoccurinasmallpatchofwoodland.
However,notallbirdsshowthesamelearningpatternasdochaffinches.Therearesomespecieswhichproducenormalsoundsevenifdeaf,sothattheycannotheartheirownefforts,muchlesscopythoseofothers.Thecooingofdovesandthecrowingofcocksareexampleshere.Inothercases,suchasparrotsandhillmynahs,birdscanbetrainedtocopyahugevarietyofsounds,thoughthosetheylearninthewildareusuallymorerestricted.Theamazingcapabilityofmynahshasapparentlyarisensimplybecausebirdsinanarealearnasmallnumberoftheircallsfromeachother,malesfrommalesandfemalesfromfemales,andthesecallsarehighlyvariedinstructure.Theabilitytomasterthemhasledthebirds,incidentally,tobecapableofsaying“hello”andmimickingawidevarietyofothersounds.
Paragraph1
Birdsongistheclassicexampleofhowgenes(hereditaryinformation)andenvironmentbothhaveacrucialroletoplayinthebehavioraldevelopmentofanimals.SincethepioneeringworkofW.H.Thorpeonchaffinches(acommonEuropeanbird),manyspecieshavebeenstudied,andithasbecomeclearboththatlearningplaysanimportantroleforallspeciesandalsothatthereareconstraintsonwhattheyareabletolearn.
1.Theword“pioneering”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto
¡recent
¡famous
¡original
¡controversial
Paragraph2
Thorpewasabletoshowthatlearningfromotherswasinvolvedinchaffinchbirdsthroughaseriesofexperimentsonhand-rearedchicks(youngbirds).Asinmostotherspecies,onlythemalessing.Thorpefoundthat,ifheraisedyoungmalesintotalisolationfromallothers,thesongtheyproducedwasquitedifferentfromthatofanormaladult.Itwasabouttherightlengthandinthecorrectfrequencyrange.Itwasalsosplitupintoaseriesofnotesasitshouldbe.Butthesenoteslackedthedetailedstructurefoundinwildbirds,norwasthesongsplitupintodistinctphrasesasitusuallyis.Thissuggestedthatsongdevelopmentrequiressomesocialinfluence.Laterexperimentsinwhichresearchersplayedrecordingsofsongstoyoungbirdsshowedjusthowprecisethisinfluencewas:
manyofthemwouldlearntheexactpatternoftherecordingtheyhadheard.Aremarkablefeatureherewasthatbirdswereabletocopypreciselysongsthattheyonlyheardinthefirstfewweeksoflife,yettheydidnotsingthemselvesuntilabouteightmonthsold.Theyarethusabletostoreamemoryofthesoundwithintheirbrainandthenmatchtheirownoutputtotheirrecollectionofitwhentheymature.
2.Theword“distinct”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto
¡short
¡simple
¡separate
¡similar
3.Accordingtoparagraph2,allofthefollowingarecharacteristicsofthesongsoftheyoungchaffinchesinThorpe’sexperimentEXCEPT:
¡Theywerenotidenticaltothesongsofnormaladultchaffinches.
¡Theylackedthecomplexformofthesongsofwildchaffinches.
¡Theywereaslongasthesongsofnormaladultchaffinches.
¡Theywereclearlydifferentfromeachother.
4.Accordingtoparagraph2,researchersdiscoveredwhichofthefollowingbyplayingrecordingsofsongstochaffinches?
¡Chaffinchescouldnolongerbetaughttoreproducesoundsafterthefirstfewweeksoflife.
¡Chaffinchescouldnotreproducesongswithexactlythesamepatternsofrecordedsongs.
¡Chaffinchesattheageofeightmonthscouldrecallandreproduceasongthattheyheardinthefirstfewweeksoflife.
¡Chaffinchesthatlearnedasongfromrecordingsinthefirstfewweeksoflifewerelaterunabletocopythesoundsofmaturechaffinches.
5.Allofthefollowingarementionedinparagraph2ascharacteristicsofwildchaffinchesEXCEPT:
¡Theyareabletocopysongsveryprecisely.
¡Theirsongdevelopmentrequiresinteractionwithotherchaffinches.
¡Theirsongsarenotaswell-structuredasthesongsofotherbirds.
¡Itisthemalesofthespeciesthatdothesinging.
Paragraph3
Youngchaffinchesnormallylearnonlychaffinchsong,thoughThorpefoundtheycouldbetrainedtosingthesongofatreepipit(anothertypeofbird),whichisverysimilartothatoftheirownspecies.Ingeneral,however,theconstraintsonlearningwhichbirdshaveensurethattheyonlylearnsongsappropriatetothespeciestowhichtheythemselvesbelong.Theseconstraintsmaybeintheirbrain’scircuitry,theyoungbirdhatchingwitharoughideaofthesoundsthatitshouldcopy.Thecrudesongofabirdrearedinisolationgivessomecluesastowhatthisroughideamaybe:
thelength,thefrequencyrangeandthebreakingupintonotesareallaspectsofchaffinchsongsharedbetweennormalbirdsandthoserearedinisolation.Inothercasestheconstraintsaremoresocial,youngbirdsonlybeingpreparedtolearnfromindividualswithwhomtheyhavesocialinteractions.Thus,inanumberofspecies,ithasbeenfoundthattheywillnotcopyfromrecordings,butwilldosofromalivetutor.Insomecasesthismayoccurwhentheyareyoungbirds,butinothersthemainlearningperiodiswhentheysetuptheirterritoriesandinteractwithneighborsforthefirsttime,enablingthemtomatchtheirneighbor’ssongsandsocounteringwiththem.Whateverthenatureofthelearningrulesinaparticularspecies,thereisnodoubtthattheyareeffective;itisveryunusualtohearawildbirdsingingasongwhichisnottypicalofitsownspeciesdespitethemanydifferentsongswhichoftenoccurinasmallpatchofwoodland.
6.Theword“enabling”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto
¡allowing
¡challenging
¡forcing
¡preparing
7.Itcanbeinferredfromparagraph3thatoneofthefunctionsofsongsinbirdsisto
¡bringtogetherbirdslivingingroupswithbirdslivinginisolation
¡helpyoungbirdsdistinguishotheryoungbirdsfromadults
¡makepossibleinteractionsbetweenbirdsofdifferentspecies
¡helpbirdstoestablishterritories
8.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?
Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.
¡Songsproducedbychaffinchesrearedinisolationarecruderthanthesongsofwildbirds.
¡Thesongofabirdrearedinisolationsuggestswhichaspectsofchaffinchsongmaybeinborn.
¡Comparingthecrudesongsofchaffinchesrearedinisolationtothesongsofwildchaffinchessuggestsdifferencesaswellassimilarities.
¡Studyingthesongaspectsofchaffinchesrearedinisolation,researchershavegainedabetterunderstan
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