H307.docx
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H307.docx
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H307
TheOriginofSpeciesbyThomasH.HuxleyMR.DARWIN'Slong-standingandwell-earnedscientificeminenceprobablyrendershimindifferenttothatsocialnotorietywhichpassesbythenameofsuccess;butifthecalmspiritofthephilosopherhavenotyetwhollysupersededtheambitionandthevanityofthecarnalmanwithinhim,hemustbewellsatisfiedwiththeresultsofhisventureinpublishingthe'OriginofSpecies'.Overflowingthenarrowboundsofpurelyscientificcircles,the"speciesquestion"divideswithItalyandtheVolunteerstheattentionofgeneralsociety.EverybodyhasreadMr.Darwin'sbook,or,atleast,hasgivenanopinionuponitsmeritsordemerits;pietists,whetherlayorecclesiastic,decryitwiththemildrailingwhichsoundssocharitable;bigotsdenounceitwithignorantinvective;oldladiesofbothsexesconsideritadecidedlydangerousbook,andevensavants,whohavenobettermudtothrow,quoteantiquatedwriterstoshowthatitsauthorisnobetterthananapehimself;whileeveryphilosophicalthinkerhailsitasaveritableWhitworthguninthearmouryofliberalism;andallcompetentnaturalistsandphysiologists,whatevertheiropinionsastotheultimatefateofthedoctrinesputforth,acknowledgethattheworkinwhichtheyareembodiedisasolidcontributiontoknowledgeandinauguratesanewepochinnaturalhistory.
Norhasthediscussionofthesubjectbeenrestrainedwithinthelimitsofconversation.Whenthepubliciseagerandinterested,reviewersmustministertoitswants;andthegenuine'litterateur'istoomuchinthehabitofacquiringhisknowledgefromthebookhejudges--astheAbyssinianissaidtoprovidehimselfwithsteaksfromtheoxwhichcarrieshim--tobewithheldfromcriticismofaprofoundscientificworkbythemerewantoftherequisitepreliminaryscientificacquirement;while,ontheotherhand,themenofsciencewhowishwelltothenewviews,nolessthanthosewhodisputetheirvalidity,havenaturallysoughtopportunitiesofexpressingtheiropinions.HenceitisnotsurprisingthatalmostallthecriticaljournalshavenoticedMr.Darwin'sworkatgreaterorlesslength;andsomanydisquisitions,ofeverydegreeofexcellence,fromthepoorproductofignorance,toooftenstimulatedbyprejudice,tothefairandthoughtfulessayofthecandidstudentofNature,haveappeared,thatitseemsanalmosthopelesstasktoattempttosayanythingnewuponthequestion.
Butitmaybedoubtediftheknowledgeandacumenofprejudgedscientificopponents,orthesubtletyoforthodoxspecialpleaders,haveyetexertedtheirfullforceinmystifyingtherealissuesofthegreatcontroversywhichhasbeensetafoot,andwhoseendishardlylikelytobeseenbythisgeneration;sothat,atthiseleventhhour,andevenfailinganythingnew,itmaybeusefultostateafreshthatwhichistrue,andtoputthefundamentalpositionsadvocatedbyMr.
Darwininsuchaformthattheymaybegraspedbythosewhosespecialstudieslieinotherdirections.Andtheadoptionofthiscoursemaybethemoreadvisable,because,notwithstandingitsgreatdeserts,andindeedpartlyonaccountofthem,the'OriginofSpecies'isbynomeansaneasybooktoread--ifbyreadingisimpliedthefullcomprehensionofanauthor'smeaning.
WedonotspeakjestinglyinsayingthatitisMr.Darwin'smisfortunetoknowmoreaboutthequestionhehastakenupthananymanliving.
Personallyandpracticallyexercisedinzoology,inminuteanatomy,ingeology;astudentofgeographicaldistribution,notonmapsandinmuseumsonly,butbylongvoyagesandlaboriouscollection;havinglargelyadvancedeachofthesebranchesofscience,andhavingspentmanyyearsingatheringandsiftingmaterialsforhispresentwork,thestoreofaccuratelyregisteredfactsuponwhichtheauthorofthe'OriginofSpecies'isabletodrawatwillisprodigious.
Butthisverysuperabundanceofmattermusthavebeenembarrassingtoawriterwho,forthepresent,canonlyputforwardanabstractofhisviews;andthenceitarises,perhaps,thatnotwithstandingtheclearnessofthestyle,thosewhoattemptfairlytodigestthebookfindmuchofitasortofintellectualpemmican--amassoffactscrushedandpoundedintoshape,ratherthanheldtogetherbytheordinarymediumofanobviouslogicalbond;dueattentionwill,withoutdoubt,discoverthisbond,butitisoftenhardtofind.
Again,fromsheerwantofroom,muchhastobetakenforgrantedwhichmightreadilyenoughbeproved;andhence,whiletheadept,whocansupplythemissinglinksintheevidencefromhisownknowledge,discoversfreshproofofthesingularthoroughnesswithwhichalldifficultieshavebeenconsideredandallunjustifiablesuppositionsavoided,ateveryreperusalofMr.Darwin'spregnantparagraphs,thenoviceinbiologyisapttocomplainofthefrequencyofwhathefanciesisgratuitousassumption.
Thuswhileitmaybedoubtedif,forsomeyears,anyoneislikelytobecompetenttopronouncejudgmentonalltheissuesraisedbyMr.Darwin,thereisassuredlyabundantroomforhim,who,assumingthehumbler,thoughperhapsasuseful,officeofaninterpreterbetweenthe'OriginofSpecies'andthepublic,contentshimselfwithendeavouringtopointoutthenatureoftheproblemswhichitdiscusses;todistinguishbetweentheascertainedfactsandthetheoreticalviewswhichitcontains;andfinally,toshowtheextenttowhichtheexplanationitofferssatisfiestherequirementsofscientificlogic.Atanyrate,itisthisofficewhichwepurposetoundertakeinthefollowingpages.
Itmaybesafelyassumedthatourreadershaveageneralconceptionofthenatureoftheobjectstowhichtheword"species"isapplied;butithas,perhaps,occurredtoafew,eventothosewhoarenaturalists'exprofesso',toreflect,that,ascommonlyemployed,thetermhasadoublesenseanddenotestwoverydifferentordersofrelations.Whenwecallagroupofanimals,orofplants,aspecies,wemayimplythereby,eitherthatalltheseanimalsorplantshavesomecommonpeculiarityofformorstructure;or,wemaymeanthattheypossesssomecommonfunctionalcharacter.ThatpartofbiologicalsciencewhichdealswithformandstructureiscalledMorphology--thatwhichconcernsitselfwithfunction,Physiology--sothatwemayconvenientlyspeakofthesetwosenses,oraspects,of"species"--theoneasmorphological,theotherasphysiological.Regardedfromtheformerpointofview,aspeciesisnothingmorethanakindofanimalorplant,whichisdistinctlydefinablefromallothers,bycertainconstant,andnotmerelysexual,morphologicalpeculiarities.Thushorsesformaspecies,becausethegroupofanimalstowhichthatnameisappliedisdistinguishedfromallothersintheworldbythefollowingconstantlyassociatedcharacters.Theyhave--1,Avertebralcolumn;2,Mammae;3,Aplacentalembryo;4,Fourlegs;5,Asinglewell-developedtoeineachfootprovidedwithahoof;6,Abushytail;and7,Callositiesontheinnersidesofboththeforeandthehindlegs.Theasses,again,formadistinctspecies,because,withthesamecharacters,asfarasthefifthintheabovelist,allasseshavetuftedtails,andhavecallositiesonlyontheinnersideofthefore-legs.Ifanimalswerediscoveredhavingthegeneralcharactersofthehorse,butsometimeswithcallositiesonlyonthefore-legs,andmoreorlesstuftedtails;oranimalshavingthegeneralcharactersoftheass,butwithmoreorlessbushytails,andsometimeswithcallositiesonbothpairsoflegs,besidesbeingintermediateinotherrespects--thetwospecieswouldhavetobemergedintoone.Theycouldnolongerberegardedasmorphologicallydistinctspecies,fortheywouldnotbedistinctlydefinableonefromtheother.
Howeverbareandsimplethisdefinitionofspeciesmayappeartobe,weconfidentlyappealtoallpracticalnaturalists,whetherzoologists,botanists,orpalaeontologists,tosayif,inthevastmajorityofcases,theyknow,ormeantoaffirmanythingmoreofthegroupofanimalsorplantstheysodenominatethanwhathasjustbeenstated.
Eventhemostdecidedadvocatesofthereceiveddoctrinesrespectingspeciesadmitthis.
"Iapprehend,"saysProfessorOwen*,"thatfewnaturalistsnowadays,indescribingandproposinganameforwhattheycall'anewspecies,'usethattermtosignifywhatwasmeantbyittwentyorthirtyyearsago;thatis,anoriginallydistinctcreation,maintainingitsprimitivedistinctionbyobstructivegenerativepeculiarities.Theproposerofthenewspeciesnowintendstostatenomorethanheactuallyknows;as,forexample,thatthedifferencesonwhichhefoundsthespecificcharacterareconstantinindividualsofbothsexes,sofarasobservationhasreached;andthattheyarenotduetodomesticationortoartificiallysuperinducedexternalcircumstances,ortoanyoutwardinfluencewithinhiscognizance;thatthespeciesiswild,orissuchasitappearsbyNature."[footnote]*OntheOsteologyoftheChimpanzeesandOrangs:
TransactionsoftheZoologicalSociety,1858.
Ifweconsider,infact,thatbyfarthelargestproportionofrecordedexistingspeciesareknownonlybythestudyoftheirskins,orbones,orotherlifelessexuvia;thatweareacquaintedwithnone,ornexttonone,oftheirphysiologicalpeculiarities,beyondthosewhichcanbededucedfromtheirstructure,orareopentocursoryobservation;andthatwecannothopetolearnmoreofanyofthoseextinctformsoflifewhichnowconstitutenoinconsiderableproportionoftheknownFloraandFaunaoftheworld:
itisobviousthatthedefinitionsofthesespeciescanbeonlyofapurelystructural,ormorphological,character.
Itisprobablethatnaturalistswouldhaveavoidedmuchconfusionofideasifth
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