语言学教案Chapter5Meaning.docx
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语言学教案Chapter5Meaning.docx
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语言学教案Chapter5Meaning
语言学教案Chapter5Meaning
Chapter5Meaning
5.1Meaningsof“meaning”
5.2Thereferentialtheory
5.3Senserelations
5.3.1Synonymy
5.3.2Antonymy
5.3.3Hyponymy
5.4Componentialanalysis
5.5.Sentencemeaning
5.5.1Anintegratedtheory
5.5.2Logicalsemantics
Semantics:
thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.
5.1Meaningsof“meaning”
OgdenRichards:
16majorcategoriesofmeaning,with22sub-categories
Ogden,C.K.I.A.Richards.1923.TheMeaningofMeaning[M].London:
RoutledgeKeganPaul.
Leech:
7typesofmeaning
Leech,G.1981.Semantics:
ThestudyofMeaning[M].Harmondsworth:
Penguin.
Conceptualmeaning(概念意义):
similartoreference(指称)
Connotativemeaning(内涵意义):
someadditional,especiallyemotivemeaning.E.g.c.f.politicianstatesman
Note:
Connotationanddenotationinphilosophy
*****TION(内涵)
*****ION(外延)
E.g.human
Thematicmeaning(主题意义)
Question:
Howtoexplainthemeaningofawordintheconceptualmeaning?
E.g.DESK
1)topointtoadeskdirectly
2)todescribeitas“apieceoffurniturewithaflattopandfourlegs,atwhichonereadsandwrites.
3)toparaphraseitas“adeskisakindoftable,whichhasdrawers”
4)togivetheChineseequivalent书桌
5.2Thereferentialtheory
Problems:
Theconcretethingpointedatdiffersfromtheabstractconceptbehindthething.Theobjectpointedatdoesnotdirectlycorrespondtotheconcept.
*****
Semantictriangleconcept
wordthing
C.f.Sensereference
1)Sense:
theabstractpropertiesofanentity――concept――connotationReference:
theconcreteentitieshavingtheseentities――denotation
2)Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.
E.g.grammaticalwordslikebut,if,and
5.3Senserelations
Sense
Reference
Threekindsofsenserelations:
samenessrelation,oppositenessrelation,and
inclusivenessrelation
5.3.1Synonymy
*****Y:
thesamenessrelation
Stylisticdifference
E.g.LittleTom___________atoybear.c.f.buypurchase
Connotativedifference.
E.g.“I’mthrifty.Youareeconomical.Andheisstingy.”
Dialecticaldifference
E.g.c.f.autumnfall
5.3.2Antonymy
Antonymy:
theoppositenessrelation
(1)Gradableantonymy
E.g.good:
bad,long:
short,big:
small
gradable---comparativeandsuperlativedegree;lexicalization
E.g.goodbad
gradedagainstdifferentnorms---noabsolutecriterion
E.g.c.f.abigcarasmallplane
onememberofapair,usuallythetermforthehigherdegree,servesasthecovertermE.g.Howoldareyou?
C.f.Unmarkedmarked
Unmarked:
thetermismoreoftenused
Marked:
thetermislessused,odd,orunusual
(2)Complementaryantonymy
E.galive:
dead,male:
female
NOTE1:
Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialof
onealsomeanstheassertionoftheother.
NOTE2:
Nocomparativeorsuperlativedegreesareallowed.
E.g.alive,dead,半死不活
*JohnismoredeadthanMary.
C.f.Johnismoremadthanstupid.
C.f.Gradableandcomplementary
1.Thedifferencebetweenthegradableandthecomplementaryissomewhatsimilarto
thatbetweenthecontraryandthecontradictory.
Inlogic,apropositionisthecontraryofanotherifitisimpossibleforbothtotrue,or
false.
E.g.Thecoffeeishot.
Thecoffeeiscold.
Apropositionisthecontradictoryofanotherifitisimpossibleforbothtobetrue,or
false.
E.g.Thisisamalecat.
Thisisafemalecat.
b
aab
2.Thenormincomplementaryisabsolute.
E.g.malefemale
3.Thereisnocovertermforthetwomembersofapair.
E.g.Isitaboyoragirl?
*Howmaleisit?
Exception:
truefalse(Pp167)
(3)Converseantonymy
E.g.buy:
sell,lend:
borrow
XbuyssomethingfromY.==YsellssomethingtoX.
*****NAL*****ES
5.3.3Hyponymy
*****Y
*****DINATE
*****S
CO-*****S
flower
AUTO-*****
living
animal
tiger…
carnation
*****C*****S/*****C*****NTS:
semanticunitssmallerthanthemeaningofaword.(Pp170)
E.g.boy:
HUMAN,YOUNG,MALE
woman:
HUMAN,ADULT,FEMALE
YOUNG:
~ADULT
FEMALE:
~MALE
E.g.father=PARENT(x,y)MALE(x)
mother=PARENT(x,y)~MALE(x)
son=CHILD(x,y)MALE(x)
die=BECOME(x,(~ALIVE(x)))
kill=CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(~ALIVE(y)))))
murder=INTEND(x,(CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(~ALIVE(y)))))))
Synonyms:
wordsorexpressionswiththesamesemanticcomponentsE.g.bachelor,unmarriedman:
HUMAN,ADULT,*****ED
Antonyms:
wordswithcontrastingsemanticcomponents
E.g.coldhot,givetake
Hyponyms:
wordswhichhaveallthesemanticcomponentsofanotherE.g.boygirlarehyponymsofchild
Senserelationsbetweensentences:
E.g.1.a.*JohnkilledBillbutBilldidn’tdie.
b.*JohnkilledBillbuthewasnotthecauseofBill’sdeath.
c.*JohnmurderedBillwithoutintendingto.
Entailment
E.g.a.JohnkilledBill.
b.Billdied.
Difficulties
1)Polysemouswordswillhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomponents.
2)Thedifferencebetweenthesemanticcomponentsdiffers.
C.f.MALEandFEMALE(absolute)ADULTandYOUNG(relative)
boyandman(clear-cut)girlandwoman(vague)
3)Theremaybewordswhosesemanticcomponentsaredifficulttoascertain.Question:
Howtoexpressthesemanticfeatures?
*****GUAGE(原语言):
alanguageusedfortalkingaboutanotherlanguage
5.5.Sentencemeaning
1)Thesentencemeaningisnotmerelyasumofwordmeaning,anditisrelatedtowordorder.
E.g.a.Themanchasedthedog.
b.Thedogchasedtheman.
2)Sentenceshavethematicmeaning.
E.g.a.I’vealreadyseenthatfilm.
b.ThatfilmI’vealreadyseen.
3)Thesentencemeaningisconnectedwithitssyntacticstructure.
E.g.ThesonofPharaoh’sdaughteristhedaughterofPharaoh’sson.
5.5.1Anintegratedtheory
Principleof**********TYgrammaticalclassificationdictionaryidiosyncraticinformation
Semantictheorysemanticinformation
Dictionary:
toprovidethegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationof
words
Grammaticalclassification
Grammaticalmarkers/syntacticmarkers
Systematicinformation
Systemicpart―Semanticmarkers:
(Male),(Female),(Human),(Animal)Idiosyncraticinformation―Distinguishers(辨义成分)
E.g.bachelor
a.[whohasnevermarried];
b.[youngknightsservingunderthestandardofanotherknight];
c.[whohasthefirstorlowestacademicdegree];
d.[youngfursealwhenwithoutamateduringthebreedingtime].
Projectionrules:
responsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether
S
NP
Selectionrestrictions
Problems
1.Thedistinctionbetweensemanticmarkeranddistinguisherisnotveryclear.E.g.(Young)
2.Thecollocationofwordsmaynotbeaccountedforbygrammaticalmarkers,semanticmarkersorselectionrestrictions.
E.g.a.Hesaidhellotothenurseandshegreetedback.
b.Mycousinisamalenurse.
c.?
Mycousinisafemalenurse.
3.Theuseofsemanticmarkerslike(Human),(Male)and(Adult),iselementsofanartificialmeta-language.
5.5.2Logicalsemantics
sentencemeaning
*****TIONALLOGIC(命题逻辑)/*****TIONAL*****S(命题演算)/*****IAL*****S(句子演算):
proposition≈sentencemeaning
Truthvalue:
truthorfalse
Predicatelogic(Pp180)
p(simpleproposition)
one-placeconnective:
negation~or
two-placeconnective:
conjunction
disjunction∨
implication
equivalence≡or
Connectiveconjunction:
similartotheEnglish“and”
Connectivedisjunction:
similartotheEnglish“or”
Connectiveimplication/conditionalimplication:
correspondstotheEnglish“if…then”Connectiveequivalence/biconditional:
correspondsto“iff…then”
C.f.Antonyms“not”
Withcomplementaryantonyms,thedenialofoneistheassertionoftheother.Withgradable,thatisnotnecessarilythecase.
E.g.Johnisn’told.
Johnisold.
C.f.Conjunction“and”
Conjunction
E.g.Hemissedthetrainandarrivedlate.
“And”
E.g.Hearrivedlateandmissedthetrain.
*Hemissedthetrainandarrivedlate.
C.f.Implication“if…then”
Implication
E.g.IfheisanEnglishman,hespeaksEnglish.
Ifsnowiswhite,grassisgreen.
E.g.Ifsnowisblack,grassisgreen.
“If…then”
E.g.?
Ifsnowiswhite,grassisgreen.
*Ifsnowisblack,grassisgreen.
Insum,propositionallogic,concernedwiththesemanticrelationbetweenpropositions,treatsasimplepropositionasanunanalyzedwhole.
E.g.Allmenarerational.
Socratesisaman.
Therefore,Socratesisrational.
*****TELOGIC/*****TE*****USstudiestheinternalstructureofsimplepropositions.
Question:
HowtoanalyzeSocratesisaman?
Argument(主目):
atermwhichreferstosomeentityaboutwhichastatementisbeingmade
Predicate(谓词):
atermwhichascribessomeproperty,orrelation,totheentity,orentities,referredto
Socratesistheargument,andmanisthepredicate.
Token:
M(s)
Note:
Asimplepropositionisseenasafunction(函数)ofitsargument.Thetruthvalueofapropositionvarieswiththeargument.
M(s)=1,M(c)=0
E.g.JohnlovesMary.L(j,m)
JohngaveMaryabook.G(j,m,b)
kill:
CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(~ALIVE(y)))))
C(x,(B(y,(~A(y)))))
Allmenarerational.
1.AllistheuniversalquantifierandsymbolizedbyanupturnedA―inlogic.
2.Theargumentmendoesnotrefertoanyparticularentity,whichisknownasavariableandsymbolizedasx,y.
Notation:
x(M(x)R(x))
“Forallx,itisthecasethat,ifxisaman,thenxisrational.”
Somemenareclever.
SomeistheexistentialquantifierandsymbolizedbyareversedE―
Notation:
x(M(x)C(x))
C.f.Universalquantifierexistentialquantifier
1.Quantifiers
2.Implicationconnective
E.g.
Allmenarerational.
Thereisnomanwhoisnotrational.Notation:
x(M(xR
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