Introduction to Commercial Law商法Word格式.docx
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Introduction to Commercial Law商法Word格式.docx
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Article:
1,Section8oftheConstitutionprovidesinpartthatCongressshallhavethepower“ToregulateCommercewithforeignNations,andamongtheseveralStates,andwiththeIndianTribes.”Thebrevityofthisclausebeliesthefactthatitsinterpretationhasplayedasignificantroleinshapingtheconceptsoffederalismandthepermissibleusesofnationalpowerthroughoutourhistory.Itmustberememberedfromthelastchapterthatthefederalgovernment,atleastinform,wasgrantedneitherageneralpolicepowernortheinherentrighttoactonanysubjectmatterinordertopromotethehealth,safetyorwelfareofthepeoplethroughoutthenation.ButtheframersdidgrantCongressapowertoregulatecommerce.
Thispowerovercommercemight,dependingonthedefinitionofthatseeminglynon-technicalword,includethepowertopromotetheeconomicwelfareofthecitizensthroughoutthecountry.ThegrantofpoweralsomaybeviewedascommittingthissubjectmattertoCongressandtherebyremovingsomeofthepowersofstatestodealwithlocalmattersthatmaybeconsideredapartofthe“commerce“describedbythisclause.Thusitcanbeseenthat,absentsomefurtherrestrictionuponthepower,itmightindeedbethefunctionalequivalentofageneralized“policepower”becausemuchoftheactivitywhichtakesplacewithinthecountry,andevenwithinasinglestate,mightbesaidtorelatetoeconomicissuesandproblems.Abroadreadingoftheclausewouldnotonlygrantasweepingpowertothefederalgovernmentbutitwouldalsorestricttheabilityofindividualstatestoadoptlawswhichburdentheformsofcommercewhichwerecommittedtothecontrolofthefederalgovernment.
Thehistoryofthecommerceclauseadjudicationis,inaveryrealsense,thehistoryoftheconceptsoffederalismaswellasthedevelopmentofdoctrinessupportingaspecificfederalpower.ItbecomesquiteimportantthereforetolookatthetreatmentwhichtheSupremeCourthasgiventhisclausethroughouteachstageinitshistory,eventhoughwewillalsosummarizetheCourt’scurrentpositioninasinglesection.Therefor,thischapterfollowstheCourtsinterpretationsofthecommercepoweronachronologicalbasis.Aftersomeintroductorynotesweshallturntothefirstcasesdefiningthepowerwhichdemonstratebothhistoricalandtheoreticaluncertaintyonthepartofthejusticesindefiningthescopeofpowersforthenewnationalgovernment.InthenextsectionwewillexaminetheCourt’sattempttorestrictthepower,moreoutofadesiretoprotectroleofthestatesinthefederalsystemthantoholdthefederalgovernmenttoanoriginallimitedgrantofpower.Finally,weshallseethatmoderneconomicproblemsmadethejusticesawarethattheywerenotinstitutionallycapableofrestrictingthispoweronaprincipledbasis;
theotherbranchesofgovernmentappeartobethemorecapableentitiesfordefiningthetruenatureofnationalcommercialproblemsandthemeansthatareneededtopromotetheeconomicwell-beingofthecountry.Today,theCourtwillupholdthedecisionsofCongresssolongasthereissomerationalargumentforfindingthattheitemsthattheCongressregulatesfallwithinthecommercepower.ButinordertounderstandthemeaningofthecurrentrulesconcerningthenatureofCongress‘spowerandtheslightrestrictionsplaceduponit,onemustreadthecurrentdecisionsinlightofthepastexperienceoftheCourt.
PartTwo:
TheInterpretationoftheCommerceClausebytheSupremeCourt
TheSupremeCourttodayinterpretsthecommerceclauseasacompletegrantofpower.TheTenthAmendmentisnolongerviewedasareservationofcertainsubjectsforstateregulation.OncethejusticesbegantodefinethecommercepowerasanindependentgranttopowerratherthanintermsoftheTenthAmendment,theproduction-commerceanddirect-indirectdistinctionssoonpassedaway.TheCourtnowwilldefertothelegislature’schoiceofeconomicrationale;
thepossibleeconomicimpactofanactivityoncommerceamongthestatesbringitwithinthispower.Thustheoldconceptsofphysicalconnectiontocommerceandthe“currentofcommerce”theorieshavebeendiscardasinappropriatejudicialrestrictionsonthecommercepower.TheCourthasfinallyreturnedtoMarshall’sdefinitionofcommerceamongthestatesasthatwhichconcernsmorestatethanone.ThejusticewilldefertothelegislativechoicesinthisareaandupholdlawsifthereisarationalbasisuponwhichCongresscouldfindarelationbetweenitsregulationandcommerge.
ModernCommercePowerTests.Therearethethreewaysthatanitem,person,oractivitymaycomeunderthefederalcommercepower.First,Congresscansettheregulations,conditions,orprohibitionsregardingthepermissibilityofinterstatetravelorshipmentsifthelawdoesnotcontraveneaspecificconstitutionalguarantee.Second,thefederalgovernmentmayalsoregulateanyactivity,including“singlestate”activities,iftheactivityhasacloseandsubstantialrelationshipto,oreffecton,commerce.Thisrelationshiporeffectmaybebasedontheoreticaleconomicrelationshiporimpact.Theactivitymaybesubjecttocongressionalpowerwhereititoneofagenerictypeofactivitiesthathaveacumulativeeffectoncommerce.Third,Congressmayregulatesingle-stateactivitieswhichotherwisehavenoeffectoncommerceiftheregulationis“necessaryandproper“toregulatingcommerceoreffectuatingregulationsrelatingtocommerce.
TheModernDelegationofPowerDoctrine--”Delegations“toStatesortheExecutiveBranch.JustastheolderconceptsoftheTenthAmendmenthavenotbeenrevived,thereisnosignificant“anti-delegation“principlewhichrestrictstheexerciseofthecommercepower.Congressmaypasslawthatallowstatestoindependentlyregulateinterstatecommerce;
suchaslawsinvolveafederaladoptionofvaryingstructuresforcommerceratherthananyunconstitutionaldelegationofthecommercepowertothestate.
Thepoliticalprocessinmoderntimeshasresultedinfederalcontrolofwidevarietyofintrastateandmultistatecommercialmatters;
ithasbecomeimpossiblefortheCongresstodefinewithprecisionthescopeandmeaningofitscommercialstatutes.Thepasthalfcenturyhaswitnessedincreasedcongressionaluseoffederalexecutiveagenciestoadministerfederalstatutesandtopromulgateregulationswhicheffectuatelegislativepolicies.TheCongressmaydelegatebothrulemakingandadministrativefunctionstotheexecutivebranchoragenciesitestablishes.
TodaytheSupremeCourtwillallowCongresstoshareitslegislativepowerwiththeexecutivebranchbydelegatingaspectsofthatpowertoexecutiveagencies.SuchlegislativedelegationswillbeupheldunlessCongressabdicatesoneofitspowerstotheexecutiveagencyorfailstogivelegislativedefinitionofthescopeoftheagency’spower.
IfCongressweretograntaprivategroupthepowertocontrolitscompetitors,insomeinstancestheremightbeaproceduralproblemregardingwhetherthepersonsregulatedweredeprivedofdueprocessbybeingsubjecttothewillofentitieswithinterestscontrarytotheirs.However,thisissuedoesnotconstituteanexcessivedelegationproblem.
Motive:
IfCongressisregulatinganactivitythatmaybedeemedtocomeunderthethree-parttestforthecommercepower,themotivefoCongressinpassingtheregulationirrelevant.ThusCongressmayexerciseitscommercepowerforclearlynoncommercialreason.TheCourthasupholdawidevarietyoflegislationunderthecommercepowerincludinghealthregulations,criminallaws,andcivilrightsacts.Ifthereisarationalbasisforfindingasufficientrelationshipbetweentheregulationandcommercepower.Ifitdoesnotviolateaconstitutionalrestrictionorfundamentalconstitutionalrightthelawmustbeupheld.
PartThree:
TheUniformCommercialCode
Intheinterestofuniformityandreform,thelegalprofession,undertheleadershipoftheAmericanLawInstitute,hassuggestedcomprehensivecodesoflawstobeadoptedbythestates.ThemostimportantoftheseforbusinessistheUniformCommercialCode.Otheruniformlawshavebeendevelopedforpartnership,corporate,andprobateamongother,butthemostambitiousuniformactofallistheUniformCommercialCode.
TheNationalConferenceofCommissionersonUniformStateLawsandtheAmericanLawInstitutesponsoredanddirectedthepreparationoftheUniformCommercialCode.Thesetwoorganizationswereassistedbyliterallyhundredsoflawprofessors,businesspersons,judges,andlawyers.TheworkontheUCCbeganin1942,andthefinisheddraftwascompletedin1952.All50statesandtheCommercialCodeinwholeorinpart.LouisianahasadoptedonlyArticles1,3,a,and5.TheUCCconsistsof10articles.
1.GeneralProvisions
2.Sales
3.CommercialPaper
4.BankDepositsandCollections
5.LettersofCredit
6.BulkTransfers
7.DocumentsofTitle
8.InvestmentSecurities
9.SecuredTransactions
10.EffectiveDateandRepealer
Wheneachofthestatesadoptedthecode,itrepealnumerousstatutes,suchastheUniformSalesAct,theUniformNegotiableInstrumentsAct,theUniformConditionalSalesAct,theUniformTrustReceiptsAct,theUniformStockTransferAct,theBulkSalesAct,andtheFactorsLienAct.
Thecodedoesnotgreatlychangethebasicprinciplesofcommerciallawderivedfromthelawmerchantandcommon,law,butinsteaditexpandsandcodifiestheminordertomodernized,clarify,standadize,andliberalizetherules.Thecodealsohelpstoclarifythelegalrelationshi
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