英美文学术语 A Structured Approach to the Short Story文档格式.docx
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英美文学术语 A Structured Approach to the Short Story文档格式.docx
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Thetermstructureasappliedtoashortstory,ortoanyformofliteraryart,isametaphoricalexpressionreferringtothearchitectural-likepatternofthework.Muchlikeabuilding,ashortstoryisanorderlyarrangementofindividualpartsputtogethertoformacohesivewhole.Inabuilding,theconstituentelementsarephysicalandexistinspace;
inashortstory,theelementsareintangibles,buttheytooarearrangedinaccordancewithacarefullyconceivedplan.Insteadofexistinginspace,theseelementsexistasideasinthemindofthewriterthataretransferredtothemindofthereaderthroughthemediumoftheprintedpage.Thestructureisthenre-createdinthereader’smindasthestoryisread.Behindthisconceptofstructureliestheassumptionthattheauthorhasanawarenessandunderstandingoftheneedforthestructureintheworkandthat,inwritingthestory,hasmadedeliberatechoicesintheselectionofdetailsandhascarefullyarrangedthesedetailsintoameaningful,aestheticpattern.Afurtherassumptionisthatfullofappreciationofastorybythereaderdemandssomeawarenessandunderstandingofitsstructure.
Initsbroadestsense,structureincludesalltheelementsinastory:
plot,characterandcharacterization,pointofview,language,whichcanberealistic,symbolicorallegory,andtheme.Instudyingliteraturefromastructuralpointofview,onemaydealwiththeseelementsseparately,atfirst;
however,theultimateobjectiveistoseetheworkasawholeandtobecomeawareofhowthepartsareintegratedtoproduceacompositeeffect.
ElementsofPlot
Simplystated,plotisthearrangementoftheeventsinastoryintoacausalsequences.Althoughtheshortstoryisoneofthemostflexiblevehiclesforthediverseelementsofaplot,thisflexibilityandvarietydoesnotreducethevalueofasystematicandevenorthodoxapproachtoplotconstruction.
Amongtheformalelementsofplotare:
exposition,background;
conflict,theoppositionofforces,internalorexternal;
complication,thedevelopmentofpredictableorunforeseencontingenciesintheaction;
foreshadowing,ahintofwhatistocome;
reversal,achangeinfortuneexperiencedbytheprotagonist;
denouement,thefinaloutcomeofthesequenceofevents;
andinsight,recognitionbytheprotagonistofhisorhernatureorfate.
CharacterandCharacterization
Characterandcharacterizationarecloselyrelatedbutessentiallydifferentconcepts.Characterreferstooneofthepersonsinthestory—theendresultoftheauthor’sefforttocreateafictionalpersonality.Characterization,ontheotherhand,referstothemeansbywhichthewritercreatesthesumoftraits,thoughts,andactionswhich,takentogether,constituteacharacter.
Atthesimplestlevel,literarycharactersmaybelongtoanumberofstocktypes.…….Withcreativeimagination,however,awritermaystartoutwithcommonplacecharactersanddevelopthemintouniversalfigures,farbeyondtheoriginalcardboarddimensionsofthestereotypestowhichtheyarerelated.DonQuixote,Hamlet,orHuckFinn,tonameafew,escapetheconfinesoftheirtypes—theimpracticaldo-gooder,theslow-to-actintellectual,andtheboywhorebelsagainstthemoresofhissociety—andtranscendtheirliteraryconfinestobecomesymbolsofhumanaspirations.
Anotherconceptrelatingtocharacteristhatofflatness,oritsopposite,roundedness.Ifthestoryisashortone,theauthormaycreateonlyflatcharacters,thatis,characterswhoseessencemaybesummedupinaphrase.Ifthestoryrequiresit,asisusuallythecase,awritermaycreatearoundedcharacter,thatis,acharacterwhoissocomplexastorequireextendedanalysis.Bothtypesofcharactersmayappearinthesamestory,dependingontheirimportanceandthelengthofthestory.
Literarycharactershavealsobeendescribedasbeingstaticordeveloping,dependinguponwhethertheyremainthesamefromthebeginningtotheendofthestoryorwhethertheyundergosomesignificant,internalchangeinthecourseoftheevents.Theconceptofdevelopingsuggeststhatthecharacterachievesadifferentviewoflifeasaresultofsomeinsightgainedfromconflictandisnolongerquitethesamepersonasbefore.Theconceptofstaticsuggeststheopposite.
PointofView
Theconceptofpointofviewintroducedinthediscussiononcharacterandcharacterizationrequiresamoredetailedexplanationbecauseofitsimportancetothestructureofastory.Thereareseveralquestionsaboutthewayastorycanbetoldthatwillhelpleadustoanunderstandingofexactlywhatpointofviewis,whatvarietiesthereare,andhowdifferentpurposesareservedbythesedifferentvarieties.Chiefamongthesequestionsarethefollowing:
throughwhoseeyesandearsdoweknowwhatisgoingon?
Howmuchdoesthisobserver-spokesperson,ornarrator,knowaboutthepeopleandeventsinthestory?
Doesheorsheknowallthereistoknowabouteveryoneandeverythingoristheknowledgepossessedlessthantotal?
Doesthespokespersonseeintothemindsofallthemajorcharactersorintothemindofjustone?
Foreaseofnamingandforthesubsequentidentification,wemayask:
inwhatpersonisthestorybeingtold—firstorthird?
Wealsoneedtoconsiderthedegreeofparticipationthattheauthor’sspokesperson—observerhasintheactionofthestory.Forexample,isthisspokespersonanagentintheeventsmerelyanobserverattheperipheryoftheaction,oranoutsiderreportingsecond-handinformation?
Finallywemightinquire:
howdoesthepointofviewchosenservetheauthor’spurposesandhowisitbettersuitedtotheneedsofthestorythanotheroptionsmighthavebeenwhenoneconsiderstheoveralleffecttheauthorisattemptingtoproduce?
Inaskingallofthesequestions,andparticularlythelastone,oneshouldkeepinmindthatthepointofviewselectedbytheauthorshouldunifyandgiveasenseofdirectiontothestory.Atthesametime,itshouldalsoblendsmoothlywithalltheelementsofthestory.
Forthepurposeofconvenientreference,severaldifferentpointsofviewhavebeentraditionallydistinguishedandnamed.Oneoftheearliestemployedandmostfamiliaristhefirst-personpointofview,inwhichthenarratormaybeamajorcharacter,aminorcharacter,orabystander.Thenarratormaygiveafirst-handaccount,oronemixedwithconjectureandhearsay.Thenarratormaybeattheedgeoftheactionandbasicallyobjectiveinattitude,asisthecasein“TheFalloftheHouseofUsher.”Orthenarratormaybeatthecenteroftheactionandhighlyinvolvedemotionally,asistheyoungmanin“I’maFool.”Ontheotherhand,theauthormayelecttousethethird-personpointofview,inwhichthereaderseesandinterpretseverythingthroughthemindofasinglecharacter,whomaybeatthecenterofthestory,aswithMissBrillintheMansfieldselection;
orattheperiphery,aswiththetownsman-narratorin“ARoseforEmily”(whoaretotallyoperatesfromthethirdpersonpointofview,eventhoughheemploysthepronoun“we”);
oroutsidetheactionentirely,asin“TheMinister’sBlackVeil.”Whenasinglecharacteratthecenteroftheactionisusedasthefocusofimpressions,thetermcentralintelligenceisoftenapplied.Inthecentralintelligencepointofview,thecharacterisawareofallthatoccursinthestoryandeverysignificantthoughtheorshehasismadeknowntothereader.Althoughacentralintelligencecharacterisinvolvedinorwitnessesallthatishappening,thecharactermaybetemporarilyconfused,self-deluded,ornaï
veenoughtobeunawareofitsfullmeaning.However,eveninsuchinstances,thereadermayexpecttobeprovidedwiththenecessaryinformationtoallowacorrectinterpretationofthesignificanceofwhatisgoingon.Sometimesthispointofviewisreferredtoaslimitedomniscience,sincetheauthorprovidesaccesstothemindofonlyonecharacterinthestory.
Anotherpossibilityistheoneinwhichthewritermaychoosenottoinvadetheinnersanctumofthemindofanyofthecharacters.Instead,theauthormaydecidetofunctionasthe“camera-eye”and“tape-recorder”andabstainfromanyjudgmentalcomment,relyingonlyonthecarefulselectionofsignificantdetails,asHemingwaydoesin“TheKillers.”Thisostensiblyobjectivepointofviewisvariouslyreferredtoas“thestage-setting”or“scenic”techniqueoftellingastorybecauseofitsemphasisonstraightforwardrepresentationanddeliberateavoidanceofexplicitinterpretationofmotivesandactions.
Opposedtothesepointsofviewwithvaryingdegreesoflimitedknowledgeistheomniscientpointofview,oneinwhichtheauthorprovidestheaccesstothethoughtsofanyandallthecharacters,inanyplaceatanytimeheorshechooses.Usuallytheauthorspeaksinthethirdperson,butthemethodmay,onceinawhile,beusedwithafirst-personnarrator.Althoughwritersoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturieswhoemployedthispointofviewoftenindulgedincommentsmadedirectlytothereader,modernwritersusingthismethodusuallyrefrainfromsuchstatements.Instead,theymaintainanaestheticdistancethroughirony,scrupulousattemptsatimpartiality,orsomeothertonaldevice,asinthecasewithFitzgeraldandMaugham.
Language
Linkedasitistothepatternofaction,characterandcharacterization,andpointofview,language,besidesbeingthemedium,isalsoanotherimportantelementinthestructureofthestory.Asthetermisusedhere,languagereferstothewayinwhichwordsareputtogetherforthecreationofspecialeffects.Amongtheseeffectsare:
attitu
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