11[1]._classroom_interaction_and_second_language_acquisition.docx
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11[1]._classroom_interaction_and_second_language_acquisition.docx
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Topic11.Classroominteractionandsecondlanguageacquisition
1.Interactionintheclassroom
Interactionintheclassroomreferstoverbalinteractionsineducationalsettings.
2.Methodsofresearchinglearninginthesecondlanguageclassroom
1)Tradition:
Psychometric
Typicalissues:
languagegainfromdifferentmethods,materials,treatment
Methods:
experimentalmethod-pre-andpost-testwithexperimentalandcontrolgroups
2)Tradition:
interactionanalysis
Typicalissues:
extenttowhichlearnerbeheviorisafunctionofteacher-determinedinteraction
Methods:
codingclassroominteractionsintermsofvariousobservationsystemsandschedules
3)Tradition:
discourseanalysis
Typicalissues:
analysisofclassroomdiscourseinlinguisticterms
Methods:
studyclassroomtranscriptsandassignutterancestopre-determinedcategories
4)Tradition:
ethnographic
Typicalissues:
obtaininginsightsintotheclassroomasaculturalsystem
Methods:
naturalistic'uncontrolled'observationanddescription
3.Aspectsofclassroominteraction
1)thenatureofsecondlanguageclassroominteraction
Syllabus:
whattoteach
Method:
howtoteach
Atmosphere:
thekindofrelationshipstheteacherwantstoencourage
Input:
thetargetlanguagematerialsfromwhichthelearnerslearntheirtargetlanguagePracticeopportunity:
opportunitiesforthelearnerstopracticeusingtheirtargetlanguageReceptivity:
Interactioncreatesinthelearnerastateofreceptivity,definedasanactiveopenness,awillingnesstoencounterthelanguageandtheculture
2)structureandgeneralcharacteristics
SinclairandCoultharddevelopedahierarchicalmodelbyidentifyingthefollowingranksinthestructureofalesson:
(1)Lesson:
hasonlyaweaklydefinedstructure,consistingofanunorderedseriesoftransactions
(2)Transaction:
consistsofaprelimimary,oneormoremedial,andaterminalexchanges.
(3)Exchange:
consistsofanumberofmoves,e.g.boundaryexchanges,signaledbyframingandfocusingmoves.Theelementofstructurethatismostclearlydefined,however,isthatofteachingexchange,whichtypicallyhasthreephases,involvinganinitiatingmove,arespondingmove,andafollow-upmove.Forexample:
T:
AskAnanwhathisnameis?
(initiating)
S:
What'syourname?
(responding)
T:
Good,(follow-up)
(4)Move:
eachmoveisrealizedbymeansofvariouskindofacts,thesmallestunitinthediscoursesystem.Forexample,thefollow-upmovecanbeperformedbymeansofan"accept"(e.g.Yes),an"evaluate"(e.g.Good)ora"comment"(e.g."That*sinteresting."
(5)Act
Thissystem,whenappliedtoaccountingforlanguagelessons,fitsremarkablywell.Onlysmallchangesarenecessary.Forexample,studentsintheL2classroomoftenproduceanadditionalresponseafterthefollow-upmoveinIRFexchanges:
T:
Whatdoyoudoeverymorning?
S:
Icleanmyteeth.
T:
Youcleanyourteetheverymorning.
S:
Icleanmyteetheverymorning.
Theexchangestructureis,therefore,IRF(R)
3)Typesoflanguageuse
OtherresearchershavesoughttodescribeclassroominteractionbyidentifyingthedifferenttypesoflanguageuseorinteractionfoundinL2classrooms.
Allwright(1980)provideswhathecalls"amacro-analysisoflanguageteachingandlearningbyidentifyingthreebasicelements:
1.Samples:
instancesofthetargetlanguage,inisolationorinuse.
2.Guidance:
instancesofcommunicationconcerningthenatureofthetargetlanguage.
3.Managementactivities:
aimedatensuringtheprofitableoccurrenceof
(1)and
(2)
Theseelementsarenotmutuallyexclusive,asinstancesof"guidance"and"managementactivities"automaticallyprovide"samples"
Otheraccountsoftypesofclassroomusedistinguishbetweeninteractionwherethefocusisthecodeitselfandinteractionwhichcentresongenuinemeaningexchange.McTear(1975),forinstance,identifiesfourtypesoflanguageusebasedonthisgeneraldistinction:
1.Mechanical:
noexchangeofmeaningisinvolved
2.Meaningful:
meaningiscontextualizedbutthereisstillnoinformationconveyed
3.Pseudo-communicative:
newinformationisconveyedbutinamannerthatisunlikelyinnaturalisticdiscourse
4.Realcommunication:
spontaneousspeechresultingfromtheexchangeofopinions,jokes,classroommanagement,etc.
Mechanicalandmeaningfullanguageuseinvolveafocusonthecode,whilerealcommunicationbydefinitionentailsgenuineinformationexchange;pseudo-communicativeliessomewhereinbetween.
InvanLier's(1982,1988)framework,therearefourbasictypesofclassroominteraction,accordingtowhethertheteachercontrolsthetopic(whatistalkedabout)andtheactivity(thewaythetopicistalkedabout):
Type1:
occurswhentheteachercontrolsneithertopicnoractivity,asinthesmalltalksometimesfoundatthebeginningofalessonorinprivatetalkbetweenstudents
Type2:
theteachercontrolsthetopicbutnottheactivity.Itoccurswhentheteachermakesanannouncement,givesinstructionsordeliversalecture.
Type3:
involvesteachercontrolofbothtopicandactivity,aswhentheteacherelicitsresponsesinalanguagedrill.
Type4:
theteachercontrolstheactivitybutnotthetopic,asinsmall-groupworkwheretheproceduralrulesarespecifiedbutthestudentsarefreetochoosewhattotalkabout.
4)Turn-taking
Researchwhichhasspecificallyexaminedturn-takingintheL2classroomhasdrawnextensivelyonethnomethodologicalstudiesofnaturallyoccurringconversations.Theseidentifiedanumberofrulesthatunderliespeakerselectionandchange:
onlyonespeakerspeaksatatime;aspeakercanselectthenextspeakerbynominatingorbyperformingthefirstpartofanadjacencypair(forexample,askingaquestionthatrequiresananswer);aspeakercanalternativelyallowthenextspeakertoself-select;andthereisusuallycompetitiontotakethenextturn.Classroomresearchersfrequentlyhighlightthedifferencesbetweenturn-takinginnaturalandclassroomsettings.McHoul(1978),forinstance,hasshownthatclassroomdiscourseisoftenorganizedsothatthereisastrictallocationofturnsinordertocopewithpotentialtransitionanddistributionproblemsandthatwhospeakstowhomatwhattimeisfirmlycontrolled.Asaresultthereislessturn-by-tumnegotiationandcompetition,andindividualstudentinitiativesarediscouraged.Turn-takinginlanguageclassroomsdoesnotdifferfromthatingeneralsubjectclassrooms.
5)Thedifferencebetweenclassroomandnaturalisticdiscourse
Thediscoursethatresultsfromtryingtolearnalanguageisdifferentfromthatwhichresultsfromtryingtocommunicate.Edmondson(1985)drawsonLabov'sideaoftheObserver'sParadox,tosuggestthatthereisalso'theteacher'sparadox',whichstates:
WeseekintheclassroomtoteachpeoplehowtotalkwhentheyarenotbeingtaughtThus,thereisatensionbetweendiscoursethatisappropriatetopedagogicgoalsanddiscoursethatisappropriatetopedagogicsettings.However,becausetheclassroomaffordsopportunitiestocommunicateaswellastolearn,thereare'co-existingdiscourseworlds'.Kramsch(1985)suggeststhatthenatureofclassroomdiscoursewilldependontherolestheparticipantsadopt,thenatureofthelearningtasks,andthekindofknowledgethatistargeted.Instructionaldiscourseariseswhentheteacherandthestudentsactoutinstitutionalroles,thetasksareconcernedwiththetransmissionandreceptionofinformationandarecontrolledbytheteacher,andthereisafocusonknowledgeasaproductandonaccuracy.Naturaldiscourseischaracterizedbymorefluidrolesestablishedthroughinteraction,tasksthatencourageequalparticipationinthenegotiationofmeaning,andafocusontheinteractionalprocessitselfandonfluency.Onewayinwhichthetwoworldscanbebroughttogetheristhroughcommunicatingaboutlearningitself.However,althoughthepotentialexistsfornaturaldiscoursetooccurintheclassroom,studiesshowthatitseldomdoes.PicaandLong(1986)foundthattherewasverylittlenegotiationofmeaninginelementaryESLclassroomsinPhiladelphiaincomparisontonativespeaker-non-nativespeakerconversationoutsidetheclassroom,asevidentinsignificantlyfewerconversationaladjustmentsbytheteachers.Politzer,Ramirez,andLewis(1981)reportthat90percentofallstudentmoveswereresponses,testifyingtothelimitednatureofopportunitiestoparticipatethatlearnersareaffordedinclassrooms.Theseandotherstudiestestifytotherestrictednatureofpedagogicdiscourse,althoughotherstudies,suchasEnright(1984)showthattherecanbeconsiderablevariationbetweenclassrooms.
Theteacher'scontroloverthediscourseisthemainreasonfortheprevalenceofpedagogicdiscourse.Someresearchershavearguedthatintheclassroomsettingdiscourserightsareinvestedintheteacher.Itistheteacherwhohastherighttoparticipateinallexchanges,toinitiateexchanges,todecideonthelengthofexchanges,tocloseexchanges,toincludeandexcludeotherparticipants,etc.Whenteacherselecttoactas'informants'or'knowers',theyarelikelytomakefulluseoftheirrights,andasaconsequencethelearnersareplacedinadependentposition.Asaresultthereisapreponderanceofteacheractsoverstudentacts(typicallyina2:
1ratio),becauseteachersopenandcloseeachexchange.
Intheopinonofsome,pedagogicdiscourseconstitutesa'falsificationofbehavior*anda'distortion'(Riley1977),butotherresearchersseeitasinevitableandevendesirable(forexample,Edmondson1985).Todate,therearemoreargumentsthanevidence,althoughformalinstructiondoesappeartoresultinfasterlearningandhigherlevelsofultimateachievement.
6)Teachertalk
ThebulkofL2c
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