Lidar : Range-Resolved optical remote sensing of the atmosphere.pdf
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Lidar : Range-Resolved optical remote sensing of the atmosphere.pdf
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SpringerSeriesinOPTICALSCIENCES102FoundedbyH.K.V.LotschEditor-in-Chief:
W.T.Rhodes,AtlantaEditorialBoard:
T.Asakura,SapporoK.-H.Brenner,MannheimT.W.Hnsch,GarchingT.Kamiya,TokyoF.Krausz,ViennaandGarchingB.Monemar,LinkpingH.Venghaus,BerlinH.Weber,BerlinH.Weinfurter,MunichSpringerSeriesinOPTICALSCIENCESVolumeI1Solid-StateLaserEngineeringByW.Koechner,5threvisedandupdateded.1999,472figs.,55tabs.,XII,746pagesPublishedtitlessincevolume8080OpticalPropertiesofPhotonicCrystalsByK.Sakoda,2nded.,zooq,i07figs.,29tabs.,XIV,255pages81PhotonicAnalog-to-DigitalConversionByB.L.Shoop,zooi,z5gfigs.,11tabs.,XIV,330pages82SpatialSolitonsByS.Trillo,W.E.Torruellas(Eds),zooi,i94figs.,7tabs.,XX,454pages83NonimagingFresnelLensesDesignandPerformanceofSolarConcentratorsByR.Leutz,A.Suzuki,zooi,i39figs.,44tabs.,XII,272pages84Nano-OpticsByS.Kawata,M.Ohtsu,M.Irie(Eds.),2002,258figs.,ztabs.,XVI,321pages85SensingwithTerahertzRadiationByD.Mittleman(Ed.),2003,207figs.,14tabs.,XVI,337pages86ProgressinNano-Electro-OpticsIBasicsandTheoryofNear-FieldOpticsByM.Ohtsu(Ed.),2003,118figs.,XIV,161pages87OpticalImagingandMicroscopyTechniquesandAdvancedSystemsByP.Torok,F.-J.Kao(Eds.),2003,260figs.,XVII,395pages88OpticalInterferenceCoatingsByN.Kaiser,H.K.Pulker(Eds.),2003,203figs.,50tabs.,XVI,504pages89ProgressinNano-Electro-OpticsI1NovelDevicesandAtomManipulationByM.Ohtsu(Ed.),2003,115figs.,XIII,188pagesgotiRamanAmplifiersforTelecommunications1PhysicalPrinciplesByM.N.Islam(Ed.),2004,488figs.,XXVIII,328pages9012RamanAmplifiersforTelecommunications2Sub-systemsandSystemsByM.N.Islam(Ed.),2004,278figs.,XXVIII,420pagesgiOpticalSuperResolutionByZ.Zalevsky,D.Mendlovic,2004,164figs.,XVIII,232pages92UV-VisibleReflectionSpectroscopyofLiquidsByJ.A.Raty,K.-E.Peiponen,T.Asakura,2004,131figs.,XII,2x9pages93FundamentalsofSemiconductorLasersByT.Numai,2004,166figs.,XII,264pagesClausWeitkampEditorLidarRange-ResolvedOpticalRemoteSensingoftheAtmosphereForewordbyHerbertWaltherWith162IllustrationsDr.ClausWeitkampGKSS-ForschungszentrumInstitutfrKstenforschungMax-Planck-Strae21502GeesthachtGermanyLibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataLIDAR:
range-resolvedopticalremotesensingoftheatmosphere/ClausWeitkamp,editor;forewordbyHerbertWalther.p.cm.-(Springerseriesinopticalsciences,ISSN0342-4111;102)Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN0-387-40075-3(acid-freepaper)1.Atmosphere-Laserobservations.2.Atmosphericphysics-Remotesensing.3.Opticalradar-Observations.I.Weitkamp,Claus.II.Springerseriesinopticalsciences;v.102.QC976.L36L562005551.5028-dc222004052454ISBN0-387-40075-3Printedonacid-freepaper.2005SpringerScience+BusinessMediaInc.Allrightsreserved.Thisworkmaynotbetranslatedorcopiedinwholeorinpartwithoutthewrittenpermissionofthepublisher(SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,Inc.,233SpringStreet,NewYork,NY10013,USA),exceptforbriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviewsorscholarlyanalysis.Useinconnectionwithanyformofinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknoworhereafterdevelopedisforbidden.Theuseinthispublicationoftradenames,trademarks,servicemarks,andsimilarterms,eveniftheyarenotidentifiedassuch,isnottobetakenasanexpressionofopinionastowhetherornottheyaresubjecttoproprietaryrights.987654321SPINPrintedinSingaporeForewordSoonafterthelaserwasinventeditbecameobviousthatthisnewinstru-ment,providingvisibleandinfraredradiationwithhighintensitydensityandsmalldivergence,wouldbeagreattoolforremotemonitoringofatmosphericpropertiesbyradar-likemethods.Thelidarmethod(liforlightinsteadofraforradio)isthuspracticallyasoldasthelaseritself.Inthebeginning,measurementsusinglightscatteringofaerosolsanddustparticleswereatthefocusofattention,e.g.,forinvestigatingvis-ibilityorcloudheights.Aslasersbecamemoreintense,andsystemsfordetectingbackscatteredlightmoresensitive,Rayleighscatteringwasalsostudiedtoallowparameterssuchasvariationofthetotalairpressureorclearairturbulencetobeinvestigated.Furthermore,Ramanscatteringallowedlimitedselectivedetectionofgasconstituentsoftheatmosphere.Increasingsophisticationoflasersystemsmadeitpossibletostudytraceconstituentsoftheatmosphere;thiswasthecaseassoonasfrequency-tunablelasersystems,eitherline-tunableorcontinuouslytun-able,becameavailable.Thismadeselectiveabsorptionandfluorescenceaccessiblefordetectingtraceconstituentswithasensitivitysufficientlyhightobeuseful.Improvedmethodssuchasthedifferentialabsorptionmethodwerealsoinventedandusedtomonitortraceconstituentsoverlargedistances.Inthisway,thestratosphericozoneconcentration,forexample,couldbemonitoredwithgoodaccuracyandalsocheckedbycomparisonwiththeresultsofothermethodsappliedsimultaneously.Todaylidarozonemeasurementsarebeingroutinelyappliedbymanylaboratoriesintheworld.viForewordNotonlywerelasersystemsimprovedinrespecttosophistication,theyalsobecamemorereliableandmoreefficient,sothatfinally,long-termroutineusewaspossibleandmobilesystems,especiallyadvantageousforpollutionmonitoring,cameintouse.Systemswerealsoappliedinairplanesandsatellites,thustremendouslyincreasingtherangeofapplicationoflidarmethods.Improvementoflasertechnologywasvitalinthelidarfield.Atfirst,researchersweremainlyconcernedwithkeepingthelaseroftheirlidarsystemworking;finally,theywereabletoconcentrateonoptimizingthemeasurementprocedureitselfandspendthetimeevaluatingtheirdata.Lidarthuswentthroughmanyupsanddowns.Finally,itcanbestatedthatthetechnologyreachedthestagewheremethodsbecamereliable.Withafewexceptions,e.g.,thewhitelightfemtosecondlidarsystem,thetechniquesdescribedinthepresentbookareinprinciplealreadymentionedinpreviousreviewsofthefield.However,theexperiencegainedinthelastfewyearswiththedifferentmethodshasbeenhugelyextendedbyprogressinlasertechniques,sothatfinallytheenormouspotentialoflidarwasrecognized.Iamsurethatthisbookwillhelpnewcomerstothefieldtoobtaintheinformationnecessaryforlearningaboutthepotentialoflidarmethodsandapplyingthetechniquesformakingusefulmeasurements.Researchersworkinginthelidarfieldwillprofitfromthepracticeofexperiencedcolleagueswhocontributedtothebook.HerbertWaltherUniversityofMunichandMaxPlanckInstituteofQuantumOpticsGarching,August2004PrefaceThisisabookonlidar,anactiverange-resolvingopticalremotemeasure-menttechnique.Lidarallowsustomeasure,notjust“sense,”virtuallyeverypropertyoftheatmosphere.Lidarusesasaprobeopticalradiation,orlight,evenifthisradiationisnotalwayswithinthelimitsofthevisiblepartofthespectrum.Lidar,orlaserradar,asitissometimescalled,bor-rowsitsnamefromanalogywiththebetter-knownradar.Thereareindeedcertainsimilarities,andyetthefullnameofwhichlidaristheacronym,“lightdetectionandranging,”ismoremisleadingthanenlightening.Intheearlydayslidarwasconsidereda“poormansradar,”asoneauthorputit.Thisisnolongerthecase.Todayslidarsystemshavereachedahighdegreeofmaturityandsophistication.Theyallowscien-tiststomeasurearichvarietyofatmosphericparametersonaroutinebasis.Lidarsrangeinsizefromashoeboxtoa40-footcontainer.Com-paredtoradar,lidaroffersmuchbettersensitivitytoaerosols,muchbetterspatialresolution(lateralresolutionontheorderofonemeteratadistanceoftenkilometerswithnosidelobes),andcomparabledepthandtimeresolution.Lidarscanmeasuregaseswhichradarcannot.Lidaropensperspectivesfortheremote,noncontact,range-resolvedmeasurementoftheelementcompositionofaerosolsandremotechemicalanalysisofdistanttargets.Asawhole,lidarprovidesmoreanddifferentinformationonthestateoftheatmosphere.Lidarsandradarsthuscomplementeachotherinanidealsynergism.Thisbookcovers,foreachofthemajorvariantsofthelidartech-nique,theunderlyingphysicshowitworks,itsmathematicswhattherelevantequationslooklike,thebasiclayoutofaninstrument,andexam-plesofatmosphericpropertiesthatcanbedeterminedandatmosphericviiiPrefaceprocessesthatcanbeinvestigated.Range-finding,bathymetry,activeimagingofaremoteobject(“ladar”),andnon-range-resolvingremotefluorescencemeasurementsarenotdescribed.Also,thisisnotabookonmeteorology,atmosphericchemistry,atmosphericphysics,orpollutionabatementstrategies.Becausethebookisnotamonograph,therela-tiveimportanceattachedbytheauthorstothedifferentaspectsvaries:
Somechaptersaremoretheoretical,othersaremoredescriptiveinnature.Someauthorsstressthehistoricaldevelopment,othersdevotemostoftheavailablespacetoapplications.Thestyleandtheuseofmathematicalsymbolsarenotstrictlyconsistentfromonechaptertoanother,althoughsomeuniformityinterminologyhasbeenachieved.Thefirsttwochaptersaftertheintroductioneachreviewapheno-menonofparticularimportancetolidar,namely,depolarizationandmultiplescattering.Thefollowingchaptersaredevotedeithertoalidarvariantthatisbasedononetypeofinteractionsuchaselasticscattering,absorption,orRamanscattering,ortothemeasurementofoneparticularatmosphericproperty(visibility,moisture).Someofthechapterscontainoriginalmaterialthatcannotbefoundinbooksorarchivaljournals,butispresentedhereforthefirsttime.Ishouldliketodepictthiswithafewexamples.Forexample,inthechapteronpolarization(Chapter2),thecontentsofFigures2.3,2.4,and2.5,thediscussionaboutSaharandustinFlorida,andthedescriptionoftheeffectofcloudsareoriginalmaterial,althoughsomeofithasbeenusedinart
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