在WTOGATS框架下关于教育服务贸易的协商外文翻译文档格式.docx
- 文档编号:3268635
- 上传时间:2023-05-01
- 格式:DOCX
- 页数:11
- 大小:24.42KB
在WTOGATS框架下关于教育服务贸易的协商外文翻译文档格式.docx
《在WTOGATS框架下关于教育服务贸易的协商外文翻译文档格式.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《在WTOGATS框架下关于教育服务贸易的协商外文翻译文档格式.docx(11页珍藏版)》请在冰点文库上搜索。
egger,S.275-308
Author:
RaymondSanerandSylvieFasel
1ImportanceofTradeinEducationalServices
Tradeineducationalservices(ES)hasreceivedgrowingattentionandhaselicitedincreasinglyheatedreactionsbyvariousstakeholdersrangingfromgovernments,privatesectorinvestors,teachers’unionstostudentassociationsandparentorganizationsinOECDanddevelopingcountries.Thisarticlewilldescribesomeoftheissues,giveasummaryofthenegotiationprocesssofarwithintheWTOcontext,andoutlinepossibleavenuestoresolvetheconflictinginterestsoftradeineducationalservices.ThefollowingpointsdepictthegrowingimportanceoftradeinES:
(1)Thevalueofannualtradein1999inhighereducationserviceshasbeenestimatedat30billionUS$,reaching50%oftradeinfinancialservicesestimatedat59.3billionUS$.TheestimatesoftradeinESwouldbehigherifestimateswereavailableforthetotaltradeinES.HighereducationisonlyoneoffivesubsectorsofES.
(2)Highqualityeducationcanpositivelyinfluencelabourfactorconditionsofacountry’seconomicdevelopment.Theavailabilityofhighlyskilledlabourforceisafactorcontributingsubstantiallytonationaleconomicdevelopment.Mostcountriesconsiderinvestmentineducationasbeingofstrategicimportancetoenhancenationalcompetitivenessandtoincreaseopportunitiestoattractforeigndirectinvestment.
(3)TradeinESisinherentlycross-sectoralaffectingtrade,economics,educationandculture.Thisbuilt-inmulti-functionalityoftradeinESrequirescooperationbetweeninstitutionsmandatedtodealwiththedifferentaspectsoftradeinES(WTO)andwaystoestablishcrossnationalrecognitionofeducationalproducts(UNESCO).
(4)Whilemoststakeholderscanagreethatprivatesectorproviderscanbeequalorevenmoreefficientproducersofeducationalservices,noagreementexistssofarastotheintendedeffectivenessorpurposeofeducation.Iseducationsupposedtobeonlyaboutacquisitionofknowledgeandskills,oralsoaboutensuringstudents’integrationintocivilsociety,ensuringsocialandnationalcohesionandequitableaccesstoknowledgebyallstrataofsocietyindependentofwealthandsocialclass?
Incaseofthelatter,educationcanbeseenasapublicgoodtobeprovidedsolelybystateschoolsoratbestunderstrictsupervisionbystateregulators.
ThepointslistedabovehighlightwhysomanystakeholdergroupsattachsomuchimportancetotradeinES.Afulldiscussionofallthefourpointsisbeyondthescopeofthisarticle.
TheauthorswillinsteadfocusonESwithinthecontextofWTOandthecomplexitiesoftheWTO/GATSnegotiationsontradeineducationalservices,anddevelopavenueshownegotiationsofGATS/EScouldbeundertakenundertheauspicesoftheDohaRound.
2GATSandTradeinEducationalServices
Educationisoneoftwelvesectors(Theothersectorsare:
businessservices;
communicationservices;
constructionandrelatedengineeringservices;
distributionservices;
environmentalservices;
financialservices;
healthandsocialservices;
tourismandtravelrelatedservices;
recreational,culturalandsportingservices;
transportservices;
otherservicesnotincludedelsewhere(WTO:
ServicesSectoralClassificationList))coveredbytheGeneralAgreementonTradeinServices(GATS),whichtogetherwiththearticlesgoverningtradeingoodsconstitutetherule-makingbodyoftheWTO(formerlytheGATT).AlthoughtradeinEShasbeenpartoftheWTOsinceitsinceptionin1995,itdidnotdrawasmuchattentionasothersectorslikecommunicationsorfinancialservicesbeforethelaunchoftheServicesRound(2000)anditsinclusionintheDohaRound(endof2001).Asaresult,littleprogresshadbeenachievedbytheContractingMemberParties(CMPs)intermsofcommitmentstowardsmarketaccess,nationaltreatmentandliberalisationoftheirrespectiveeducationalsectors.Nevertheless,duringthelasttwoyears,EShasreceivedconsiderableattentionespeciallyinOECDcountries.
BeforethestartoftheDohaRound,marketsharesinEShavebeenseriouslyunderestimated.Sincethen,amoreprecisepicturehasemergedofthesector’srelativegrowthintermsofexportsandimports,therebyputtingESonahigherpositionontheagendaoftheCMPsnegotiationitems.
2.1GATSMainPrinciples
Ingeneral,GATSconsistsofthreeobligations,namely:
mostfavourednationtreatment,transparency,anddisputesettlement.TheyapplytoallservicesectorsregardlessofwhetherornotCMPsschedulecommitmentstoliberalisetheirmarketsinanyofthetwelveservicesectors.
WTOmembershavetorespectsectorspecificobligationsattachedtonationalschedulesinregardtomarketaccessandnationaltreatmentrules.Marketaccessfocusesprimarilyonnon-discriminatoryquantitativerestrictionsimpedingaccesstomarkets.EachCMPdetermineslimitationsonmarketaccessforeachcommittedsectorandmodeofsupplyofitsrespectivenationalservicesector.Nationaltreatmentreferstoequaltreatmentforforeignanddomesticproviders(orequalcompetitiveopportunitieswhereidenticaltreatmentisnotpossible).Onceaforeignsupplierhasbeenallowedtosupplyaserviceinanothercountrythereshouldbenodiscriminationintreatmentbetweenforeignanddomesticproviders.Nationaltreatmentapplieswhereacountryhasmadeapositivespecificcommitment.on-conformingmeasurescanberetainedinscheduledsectors/modesofsupply,asnationaltreatmentdoesnotrequireidenticaltreatmentofdomesticandforeignproviders,butitsspecificationmustbemadeclear.Thesesectorspecificobligationsapplytocommitmentslistedinnationalschedules.ThedegreeandextendofobligationisdeterminedbyeachCMP.
However,servicessuppliedintheexerciseofgovernmentalauthorityarespecificallyexcludedfromthescopeoftheGATS.GATSArticlestipulatesthat“servicesincludesanyserviceinanysectorexceptservicesuppliedintheexerciseofgovernmentalauthority”whichisfurtherrefinedinGATSarticlewhichstatesthat“aservicesuppliedintheexerciseofgovernmentalauthoritymeansanyservicewhichissuppliedneitheronacommercialbasis,norincompetitionwithoneormoreservicesuppliers”.
Sinceitcameintoforce,GATShasabuilt-inagendawhichmeansthatnegotiationscanbere-examinedperiodicallywiththegoalofreachingprogressivelyhigherlevelsofbound(legallybinding)liberalisationwithspecificflexibilitiesbuiltinfordevelopingcountries.However,eachCMPdeterminesthepace,extendandnatureofmarketopeningunderGATSandretainsitsrighttoschedulenocommitmentsinanysector/modeofsupplywhatsoever.
2.2GATSClassificationofES
Ingeneral,GATSdistinguishesbetweenfourmodesofsupplythroughwhichservicescanbetraded,namelyMode1(Cross-bordersupply),Mode2(Consumptionabroad),Mode3(Commercialpresence)andMode4(Presenceofnaturalpersons).AppliedtotradeinESwithinGATS,theexampleslistedinTable1helpillustratethemodalitiesavailableforCMPstoengageinEStrade.
Table1ModesofSupplyinGATS/ES
Modeofsupply
Explanation
ExamplesforES
1.
Cross-Border
Supply(Mode1)
Theprovisionof aservicewheretheservicecrossestheborder(doesnotrequirethephysicalmovementoftheconsumer).
Distanceeducation;
Virtualeducationinstitutions;
Educationsoftware;
CorporatetrainingthroughICTdelivery.
2.
Consumption
Abroad(Mode2)
Provisionoftheserviceinvolvingthemovementoftheconsumertothecountryofthesupplier.
Studentswhogotoanothercountrytostudy.
3.
CommercialPresence
(Mode3)
Theserviceproviderestablishesorhaspresenceofcommercialfacilitiesinanothercountryinordertorenderservice.
Localuniversityorsatellitecampuses;
Languagetrainingcompanies;
Privatetrainingcompanies,e.g.Microsoft,CISCO,etc.
4.
PresenceofNatural
Persons(Mode4)
Personstravellingtoanothercountryonatemporarybasistoprovideservice.
Professors,teachers,researchersworkingabroad.
Source:
OECD/CERI(2002a)p.6.
InsidethefourmodesofsupplyofESidentifiedabove,educationservicesarecommonlydefinedbyreferencetofivesubsectors,namely:
1.Primary:
pre-schoolandotherprimaryeducationservices;
2.Secondary:
generalsecondary,highersecondary,technicalandvocationalsecondary,andtechnicalandvocationalsecondaryeducationservicesforhandicappedstudents;
3.Higher:
post-secondarytechnicalandvocationalandotherhighereducationservices;
4.Adult:
educationservicesforadultswhoarenotintheregularschoolanduniversitysystemandincludeseducationservicesthroughradioortelevisionbroadcastingorbycorrespondence;
5.Other:
educationservicesatthefirstandsecondlevelsinspecificsubjectmattersnotelsewhereclassifiedandallothereducationservicesthatarenotdefinablebylevel(LARSENETAL.2002,p.10).
MostMemberswhomadecommitmentsfortradeinESusedtheUnitedNationsProvisionalCentralProductClassificationinordertoavoidthecreationofanewGATSmethodologywhichwouldbeapplicableonlytothissector.However,inconsistencyofclassificationremainsaproblemsincesomeCMPshaveoptedfordifferentmethodologiesmakingcomparisonswithinsectorsacrosscountriesmoredifficult.
2.3EstimatedSizeofEducationalServicesMarkets
Ingeneral,theestimatedoverallmarketvalueinhighereducationforMode2tradeinESofOECDcountrieswasaroundUS$30billionrepresenting3%oftotalservicestradeinOECDcountries.Hence,contrarytopopularbelief,tradeinhigh
- 配套讲稿:
如PPT文件的首页显示word图标,表示该PPT已包含配套word讲稿。双击word图标可打开word文档。
- 特殊限制:
部分文档作品中含有的国旗、国徽等图片,仅作为作品整体效果示例展示,禁止商用。设计者仅对作品中独创性部分享有著作权。
- 关 键 词:
- WTOGATS 框架 下关 教育 服务 贸易 协商 外文 翻译