外层空间遥感法律制度浅析Word格式.docx
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外层空间遥感法律制度浅析Word格式.docx
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外层空间遥感法律制度浅析@#@外层空间遥感法律制度浅析@#@ ;@#@PrematureLegalFrameworkofRemoteSensingfromOuterSpace@#@ Fromtheintroductionoftechnicaldoctrines,Remotesensingsatellitesmakeitpossibletogatherinformationonmineralresources,weatherandclimaticchanges,aswellasresourcesmanagementanditcanbedrawnaconclusionthatremotesensingisahumanactivitywhichhasalreadybeenpracticeinconnectionwithcommoninterestsallovertheworldforscoresofyears.InitialdiscussionsregardingremotesensingfromouterspacetookplaceattheFirstUNConferenceonPeacefulUsesofOuterSpaceinViennain1968.Intheearly1970s,Argentina,BrazilandotherDevelopingcountriesassertedthateachStatehaspermanentsovereigntyovernaturalresourceswithintheirterritoryandthatanyinformationacquiredregardingthoseresourceswasincludedintheconceptofsovereignty.Thus,developingcountriesarguedthattheconsentofthesensedStatewasaprerequisitetoanyspace-basedremotesensingoftheirsovereignterritory.Moreover,theymaintainedthatifremotesensingdidoccur,theywereentitledtoanydatageneratedandthatthedistributionofsuchdatatothirdpartieswasimpermissiblewithouttheconsentoftheStatesensed.@#@ Actually,followingthelaunchofthefirstcivilianremotesensingsatellitein1972,developedaswellassomedevelopingcountrieshadbeendemandingsomespeciallegalregime,significantlysince1978,whentheWorkingGroupsetupunderUNCOPUOSfinallyfinishedtheirdraftof17principles.“EventsintheWorkingGroupmaywellhavebeenastrawinthewindforatrendthatwassoontobecomeapparentinanotherforum.Thistrendclearlyreflectedthemountinginfluenceofdevelopingcountriesandthepressureoftheircombinedweightininternationalaffairs.ItwasmanifestintheSecondUNConferenceontheExplorationandPeacefulUsesofOuterSpace(UNISPACEII),whichwasconvenedinViennainAugust1982.”
(1)However,ifthemisgivingsentertainedbysomeWesternindustrializedpowersaboutpossiblecontroversyregardingtheinterpretationandapplicationofsomeofthepotentialprinciplestreaty,wereignored,theultimateresultwouldbecompletelydifferent.AfteralengthydebateontheConference,thePrinciplesRelatingtoRemoteSensingoftheEarthfromSpace(Principles),whichwasannexedinUNresolution41/65,wasapprovedandadoptedunanimouslyonDecember11th,1986.@#@ Thesefinal15principles,generalspeaking,recognizethegreatbenefitpossiblyderivedfromremotesensingandalsotheopportunitiespotentiallyarisingfromthemisuse.Afterall,itisunderstandableforaUNresolution,inandbyitself,beingnotlegallybindingornotleadingtoseriousconflicts.Rather,it‘sbeenhighlightedintheensuingdiscussionforacoupledecades.Beforefocusingonpossiblecontroversialissues,aglanceatthoseunlikelyfordisputeisnecessary.Apartfromthetechnicaldefinition
(2),basically,thoseprinciples,asreiterationsofalreadyacceptedprinciplesofouterspacelaw,inparticular,supervisedunderorevencopiedverbatimetliteratimfrom1967theTreatyonPrinciplesGoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExplorationandUseofOuterSpace,includingtheMoonandOtherCelestialBodies(OuterSpaceTreaty),arecandidatesofdisqualificationforcontroversy.Forexample,PrincipleII,“Remotesensingactivitiesshallbecarriedoutforthebenefitandintheinterestsofallcountries”(3),III,“shallbeconductedinaccordancewithinternationallaw”(4),andIV,“irrespectiveoftheirdegreeofeconomicorscientificdevelopmentandstipulatestheprincipleoffreedomofexplorationanduseofouterspaceonthebasisofequality”(5).TheseparticularUNPrinciplesaremerelyarestatementoftermsfromtheOuterSpaceTreatyorotherwell-establishedcustomaryinternationallaw.Inasense,suchprinciplesmightnotescapethecharacteristicsofobscurityorambiguity,eitherofwhich,however,isnotauniqueissuetothelevelofremotesensingframeworkbuttothelevelofinternationalspacelawanddoesnotrefertotheemergencyofdivergenttextualinterpretationsofsuchresolution.@#@ Additionally,thesameasforegoingcases,toprovideanaddedprotectionforthesensedstate,PrincipleIVaddsthatremotesensingactivitiesmustbeconductedwithrespecttoallStates‘permanentsovereigntyoveritswealthandnaturalresources,andmaynotbeconductedinsuchamannerdetrimentaltothelegitimaterightsofthesensedState(6),eventhoughtheissueofsovereigntyofsatesovertheirownnaturalresources,includinginformationderivedfromremotesensingregardingsuchresourceshadbeenoneofthemostbothersomeissuesformanyyearsduringthedraftingprocessandhasservedasastumblingblocktoachievingconsensus(7),whichwillbediscussedhereinafter.Besides,“[A]nassociatedprinciple,lackingexpectationsoffuturecontroversiality,istheprinciplethataStatecarryingoutremotesensingprogramsistoinformtheU.N.Secretary-GeneralinaccordancewithArticleIVoftheRegistrationConventionandArticleXIoftheOuterSpaceTreaty”(8);@#@“Also,theprinciplerelatingtothepromotionoftheprotectionoftheEarth’senvironmentanddisclosureofinformationthatiscapableofavertinganyphenomenonharmfultosuchenvironmentaswellastheprincipleapplicabletothepromotionoftheprotectionofmankindfromnaturaldisastersandthetransmittalofrelevantinformationtoaffectedStates.”(9)(10)Hence,theUNPrinciplesalsomakeitclearthattheprotectionoftheearth‘senvironmentandtheprotectionofmankindfromnaturaldisastersareofextremeimportance.@#@ Incontrasttothoseforegoingprinciples,thereareplentyofpossibleareaswheredifferencesofinterpretationmayarise.Firstofall,theUNPrinciplesapplyonlyto“naturalresourcesmanagement,landuse,andtheprotectionoftheenvironment,”(11)media,meteorologicalandmilitaryapplicationsaresupposednotincluded(12).ThusitisconceivablethatnewsorganizationsmaydisregardtheentirePrinciplesifstrictlyinterpretedfromaliteralstandpoint.Andalso,thePrinciplesdonotapplytomilitaryreconnaissanceorsurveillance.SuchkindofidentificationinnarrowsensewascontributedtothosesufficientlybroadtermsinthecontextofthePrinciples,inavoidanceoffailuretoachieveunanimityonasetofothercivilianactivities.Infact,inutmostcircumstances,unanimityplaysarolenomorethanadoptionbynegativeconsensuswithoutmajorityvotes(13).ThisisjustthebeautyofaUNresolutionwithtolerationondeliberationspermeatedthrough,ratherthananinternationalconvention,whichmaynotbetracedtoopposedpositions.Asmentionedhereinbefore,despitethegreatinfluencebydevelopingcountriesandtheircombinationssuchas“Group77”,thedevelopedcountriesespeciallytheWesternpowers‘endeavoroftryingnottoconcludeatreatywasevenmoresignificant.“OnechampionedbytheUnitedStatesandmanywesternnationsregardedthefreedomofacquiringandimpartinginformationasafundamentalhumanrightwhereasdevelopingnationsandtheSoviet-ledsocialistcountriespredictedtheircaseastheirinalienablerighttodisposeoftheirnaturalresourcesandofinformationconcerningsuchresources.”(14)@#@ Hence,thecontroversialissuesarecenteringonthoseprinciplesnewlyintroducedunderinternationalcooperation,whichcanbutbeledbytechnicallydevelopedcountriesandseeminglybenefitthedevelopingnations,payingattentionto“andtakingintoparticularconsiderationtheneedsofthedevelopingcountries”(15).Simplyspeaking,theUnitedSateshadlongbeenaproponentoftheinternationalavailabilityofremotelysenseddataonanondiscriminatorybasis,commonlyreferredtoasthe“OpenSkies”policy.TheUNPrincipleslargelyembodiedthispolicyinthewayoftripleconceptions,whichareequitableparticipation,technicalassistanceandaccesstodata.Althoughnon-binding,theU.S.commercialremotesensingregulatoryregimerecognizesthem,forthemostpart,asinternationalobligationsandrequiresthoselicensedintheU.S.tocomplywiththedataaccessibilityprinciple.ThereasonisthatthePrinciplesgivenbirthtoinmultilateralmovesweresubstantiallyinvirtueoftheAmericanpreviouspracticesinbilateralapproach.@#@ Toillustrate,thoseLandsatagreementsbeforethePrinciplesmaybestbetakenasanexample,whichareagreementsconcludedbetweentheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)ofU.S.andanumberofcountriesspreadovertheworld:
@#@Argentina,Australia,Brazil,Canada,India,Italy,Japan,Swedenetc.(16)“TheauthorityforNASAtoenterintosuchagreementsderivesfromtheNASAActof195,whichprovides‘thatactivitiesinspaceshouldbedevotedtopeacefulpurposesforthebenefitofallmankind’,whileSection205ofthatActempowersNASAto‘engageinaprogramofinternationalcooperationinworkdonepursuanttothisAct,andinthepeacefulapplicationoftheresultsthereof’。
@#@”(17)Forthosecountries,theLandsatagreementsinvolvedthebuildingofgroundstationsforacquisitionandprocessingofremotesensingsatellitedata,attheirownexpense.Inadditiontoeachcountrypayingforitsownshareintheproject,itwasalsoagreedunderLandsatarrangementsthatdataobtainedfromexperimentswouldbemadeavailabletotheinternationalscientificcommunity.Besides,countrieswithoutLandsatfacilitiesbutwithintheovercastrangeofthegroundstationswouldbeservedwithinformation(18)bonafide,prevailingtheprincipleofpactatertiisnecnocentnecprosunt.Suchpracticewasbornetheacquiescenceinmeetingofmindsthatasensorstatemightconductwithoutconse
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