8 Language transfer.docx
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8 Language transfer.docx
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8Languagetransfer
8Languagetransfer
PresentedbyZhangHua
Introduction
--Thischapterdiscusseshowthelearner’sexistinglinguisticknowledgeinfluencesthecourseofL2development,whichisthefirstfactortoreceiveseriousattentioninSLA.
--Twocompetingclaimsarebehavioristandmentalisttheoriesofacquisition:
--Behavioristtheory:
themainimpedimenttolearningistheinterferencefrompriorknowledge.Oldhabitsgetinthewayofattemptstolearnnewones.
Inlanguagelearning,“difficulty”isemphasized.Itmainlydependsontheextenttowhichthetargetlanguageissimilartoordifferentfromthenativelanguage.
Ifthetwoareidentical,learningwillbeeasythroughpositivetransfer,andiftheyaredifferent,learningdifficultyarisesanderrorsresultfromnegativetransfer.
Terminologicalissues
--Influenceofnativelanguagecannotbeadequatelyaccountedforintermsofhabitformation.
--Itisnotjustthelearner’snativelanguagethatcaninfluence,asother,previouslyacquiredsecondlanguagescanalsohaveaneffect.
--SharwoodSmithandKellerman(1986)arguedthatasuperordinatetermthatistheory-neutralisneededandsuggestcrosslinguisticinfluence.
--RodEllis:
Languagetransferreferstoanyinstancesoflearnerdatawhereastatisticallysignificantcorrelation(orprobability-basedrelation)isshowntoexistbetweensomefeatureofthetargetlanguageandanyotherlanguagethathasbeenpreviouslyacquired.
Themethodologyoftransferstudies
1.Transferasacommunicationandlearningprocess
--ThepresenceoftransfereffectsincommunicationdoesnotnecessarilydemonstratethatL1formshavepenetratedthelearner’sinterlanguagesystem.
--Corder(1983):
transferisprimarilyacommunicationstrategy,orborrowing,whichisaperformancephenomenon,notalearningprocess.
--Kellerman(1983)andOdlin(1989):
L1transferisaphenomenonofacquisitionaswellasuse.
2.Choiceofdataforthestudyoftransfer
--Transfereffectscanbeexaminedintermsofeitherreceptionorproduction.
--Productiondatacanbenaturalistic,clinicallyelicitedorexperimentallyelicitedbytests.
--Kellerman(2001)proposesthatnarrativescanserveasaparticularlyfruitfultypeofdatabecausetheyconstituteacontextforexaminingbothlinguisticandconceptualaspectsoftransfer.
--Odlinclaimedthatthemostconvincingevidencewillcomefrommultiplesources.
3.Identifyinginstancesoftransfer
--Jarvis(2000)identifiesthreecriteriaforidentifyingtransfer
(1)intra-grouphomogeneity,
(2)inter-groupheterogeneityand(3)similaritiesbetweenthenativelanguageandinterlanguageperformance.
--Varioustypesofcomparisonarepossible:
learner’sIT,L1andTL.SeeP353.
4.Measuringcrosslinguisticeffects
(1)Errors(negativetransfer)
--Learner’serrorsareconsideredinChapter2.
(2)Facilitation(positivetransfer)
--Odlin(1989)pointedoutthatfacilitativeeffectscanonlybeobservedwhenlearnerswithdifferentnativelanguagesarestudied.
--TwostudiesofrelativeclausesillustratehowtransfercanhaveafacilitativeeffectbyGass(1979,1983)andHyltenstam(1984).
(3)Avoidance
--Learnersalsoavoidusinglinguisticstructureswhichtheyfinddifficultbecauseofdifferencesbetweentheirnativelanguageandtargetlanguage.
--Identificationofavoidanceisnoteasy.Itmakessensetotalkofavoidanceifthelearnersknowwhattheyareavoiding.
Kellerman(1992):
avoidanceoccurswhenlearnersknoworanticipatethatthereisaproblemandhaveatleastsomesketchyideaofwhatthetargetformislike.
itariseswhenlearnersknowwhatthetargetisbutfindittoodifficulttouseintheparticularcircumstances.
itisevidentwhenlearnersknowwhattosayandhowtosayitbutareunwillingtoactuallysayitbecauseitwillresultinthemfloutingtheirownnormsofbehaviors.
(4)Over-use
--Over-usecanoccurasaresultofintra-lingualprocessessuchasover-generalization.
--Over-usecanalsoresultfromtransfer—oftenasaresultoftheavoidanceofdifficultstructure.
Earlydays
1.ContrastiveAnalysisHypothesis
--itisformulatedbyLado(1957).Thefollowingassumption:
ThoseelementsthataresimilartohisNLwillbesimpleandthoseelementsthataredifferentwillbedifficult.
--ThestrongestformclaimsthatallL2errorscouldbepredictedbyidentifyingthedifferencesbetweenNLandTL.
Accordingtotheweakform,CAHcanbeusedonlyaposterioritoexplainratherthanpredict.
2.Theminimalistposition
--ItplaysdowntheimportanceofL1andemphasizesthecontributionofuniversalprocessesoflanguagelearning.
(1)EmpiricalstudiestotestCAH
ThestudiesindicatethattheinfluenceofL1ismuchlessthanthatclaimedbyCAH.
(2)Minimalisttheoreticalpositionsontransfer
--ittendstoemphasizethesimilaritybetweenL2andL1acquisition.
--Newmark(1966)rejectstheviewoflanguageasincrementalprocess.Heacknowledgesinterference,butseesitasoflittleimportance,arguingthatitissimplyreflectedignorance.
--Krashen(1983)viewstransferaspadding,theresultoffallingbackonoldknowledgewhennewknowledgeislacking.
--DulayandBurt(1972)posittheexistenceofgeneralprocessingstrategieswhichareseenuniversalinthesensethattheyareusedbyalllanguagelearners.
Reappraisal
--ThereappraisalinvolvesboththeoreticalchallengestoCAHandarejectionofminimalistposition.
--L1transferisoneofmanypossibleexplanationsofL2acquisition.
--itissimilaritywithsomeunderlyingdevelopmentalprocessthatinducedlearnerstotransferanL1feature.
Evidenceoftransfereffects
Production
1.pronunciation
--Accordingtothedifferenceanddifficultyhypothesis,L2soundsthatareconspicuouslydifferentfromtheTLwillbedifficulttoacquireandthusbeacquiredlaterthansoundsthataresimilar.
--However,learnersdonotalwaystransferthephonologicalfeaturesoftheirL1.Itisgovernedpartiallybyuniversaldevelopmentaltendencies.
--Eckman,ElreyesandIverson(2003)identifiesthreewaysinwhichtheTLcandifferfromtheL1regardingphonemiccontrasts.P368.
2.Vocabulary
--Kellerman(1987)commentsthatthereareenormousquantitiesofevidencefortheinfluenceoftheL1onITwhenitcomestolexis.
--AkeyissuerelatingtolexicaltransferiswhetherlearnersformanewsemanticspecificationforanL2wordormapitontoanexistingsemanticrepresentationoftheirL1.
--VocabularyisalsoasourceofBidirectionaltransfer,whichisrecognizedbyWeinreich(1953).
--Furtherevidenceofcross-linguisticeffectsofL2onL1canbefoundinCook(2003).SeeP370).
3.Grammar
--Thecrosslinguisticinfluencesintheacquisitionofgrammaristhattransferworksalongsideotheruniversalanddevelopmentalfactors.
--Collins’(2002)studybearstestimonytothis.
--Onetypeofcross-linguisticeffectisavoidance,possiblybecauselearnersfinditrelativelyeasytomonitortheirproductionatthelevelofgrammar.SeeP272.
--Anotherkeyfindingisthatcross-linguisticinfluenceingrammarcaninvolveanothernon-nativelanguageaswellastheL1.
4.Discourse
--Transferisamajorfactoratthelevelofdiscourse.EmpiricalevidencecanbefoundinstudiesofL2pragmaticdevelopment.
--Accordingtothepositivecorrelationhypothesis,lower-proficiencylearnersarelesslikelytomanifestpragmatictransferthanhigher-proficiencylearnersbecausetheylacknecessarylinguisticresources.
Reception
--Ringbom(1992)pointsoutthattransferisatleastasimportantincomprehensionasitisinproduction.
--TheL1constitutespotentialknowledgethatcanbedrawnonmoreeasilyindecoding,whichinvolvesformtofunctionmappingthaninencoding,whichinvolvesfunctiontoformmapping.
Conceptualtransfer
--itiscloselylinkedtothenotionoflinguisticrelativity.
--Thisconcernshowthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.
--VonStutterheim(2003,2005)examinesconceptualtransfer,andtheresults,whichisshowninTable8.8,showacleareffectforthespeakers’conceptualorientationinboththeirL1andL2speech.
--thestudyofconceptualtransferisstillinitsinfancy.Odlin(2005)characterizesitasexploratory.
Constraintsontransfer
1.Sociolinguisticfactors
Sociolinguisticfactorsinfluencewhenandtowhatextenttransfercantakeplace.
(1)Thesocialcontextcaninfluencetheextenttowhichtransferoccurs.Odlin(1989,1990):
negativetransferislesslikelyinfocusedcontexts,wherethereisconcerntomaintainthestandardnessoflanguages.
LearnersmayalsomakeuseofL1formsintheircarefulstyleiftheyhaveastrongsocialmotivationtodoso.
(2)Beebe(1977)andBeebeandZuengler(1983)examinedtheeffectofaddresseefactorsontransfer.BilingualThai/ChineselearnersofEnglishdrewvariablyontheirtwpL1sdependingonwhethertheirinterlocutorwasThaiorChinese.
2.Markedness
---UniversalGrammarandmarkedness:
Corerulescanbearrivedatthroughtheapplicationofgeneral,abstractprinciplesoflanguagestructure.Peripheralrulesarenotgovernedbyuniversalprinciples,andtheyaremarked.Corerulescanbebothunmarkedandmarked.
---Languagetypologyandmarkedness:
thosefeaturesthatareuniversalorpresentinmostlanguagesareunmarked,whilethosethatarespecifictoaparticularlanguagearemarked.
Twohypotheses
(1)learnerswilltransferunmarkedformswhenthecorrespondingTLformismarked,and
(2)learnerswillresisttransferringmarkedforms,especiallywhenthecorrespondingTLformisunmarked.
Eckman’sMark
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