平狄克《微观经济学》(第七版)06.ppt
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平狄克《微观经济学》(第七版)06.ppt
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CHAPTER6OUTLINE,6.1TheTechnologyofProduction6.2ProductionwithOneVariableInput(Labor)6.3ProductionwithTwoVariableInputs6.4ReturnstoScale,Production,Thetheoryofthefirmdescribeshowafirmmakescost-minimizingproductiondecisionsandhowthefirmsresultingcostvarieswithitsoutput.,Theproductiondecisionsoffirmsareanalogoustothepurchasingdecisionsofconsumers,andcanlikewisebeunderstoodinthreesteps:
ProductionTechnologyCostConstraintsInputChoices,TheProductionDecisionsofaFirm,THETECHNOLOGYOFPRODUCTION,TheProductionFunction,factorsofproductionInputsintotheproductionprocess(e.g.,labor,capital,andmaterials).,Rememberthefollowing:
Inputsandoutputsareflows.Equation(6.1)appliestoagiventechnology.Productionfunctionsdescribewhatistechnicallyfeasiblewhenthefirmoperatesefficiently.,productionfunctionFunctionshowingthehighestoutputthatafirmcanproduceforeveryspecifiedcombinationofinputs.,(6.1),THETECHNOLOGYOFPRODUCTION,TheShortRunversustheLongRun,shortrunPeriodoftimeinwhichquantitiesofoneormoreproductionfactorscannotbechanged.,fixedinputProductionfactorthatcannotbevaried.,longrunAmountoftimeneededtomakeallproductioninputsvariable.,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),TotalOutput(q),AmountofLabor(L),AmountofCapital(K),MarginalProduct(q/L),AverageProduct(q/L),PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),AverageandMarginalProducts,averageproductOutputperunitofaparticularinput.,marginalproductAdditionaloutputproducedasaninputisincreasedbyoneunit.,Averageproductoflabor=Output/laborinput=q/LMarginalproductoflabor=Changeinoutput/changeinlaborinput=q/L,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),TheSlopesoftheProductCurve,Thetotalproductcurvein(a)showstheoutputproducedfordifferentamountsoflaborinput.Theaverageandmarginalproductsin(b)canbeobtained(usingthedatainTable6.1)fromthetotalproductcurve.AtpointAin(a),themarginalproductis20becausethetangenttothetotalproductcurvehasaslopeof20.AtpointBin(a)theaverageproductoflaboris20,whichistheslopeofthelinefromtheorigintoB.TheaverageproductoflaboratpointCin(a)isgivenbytheslopeoftheline0C.,ProductionwithOneVariableInput,Figure6.1,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),TheSlopesoftheProductCurve,TotheleftofpointEin(b),themarginalproductisabovetheaverageproductandtheaverageisincreasing;totherightofE,themarginalproductisbelowtheaverageproductandtheaverageisdecreasing.Asaresult,Erepresentsthepointatwhichtheaverageandmarginalproductsareequal,whentheaverageproductreachesitsmaximum.AtD,whentotaloutputismaximized,theslopeofthetangenttothetotalproductcurveis0,asisthemarginalproduct.,ProductionwithOneVariableInput(continued),Figure6.1,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),TheLawofDiminishingMarginalReturns,Laborproductivity(outputperunitoflabor)canincreaseifthereareimprovementsintechnology,eventhoughanygivenproductionprocessexhibitsdiminishingreturnstolabor.AswemovefrompointAoncurveO1toBoncurveO2toConcurveO3overtime,laborproductivityincreases.,TheEffectofTechnologicalImprovement,Figure6.2,lawofdiminishingmarginalreturnsPrinciplethatastheuseofaninputincreaseswithotherinputsfixed,theresultingadditionstooutputwilleventuallydecrease.,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),ThelawofdiminishingmarginalreturnswascentraltothethinkingofpoliticaleconomistThomasMalthus(17661834).Malthusbelievedthattheworldslimitedamountoflandwouldnotbeabletosupplyenoughfoodasthepopulationgrew.Hepredictedthatasboththemarginalandaverageproductivityoflaborfellandthereweremoremouthstofeed,masshungerandstarvationwouldresult.Fortunately,Malthuswaswrong(althoughhewasrightaboutthediminishingmarginalreturnstolabor).,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),Cerealyieldshaveincreased.Theaverageworldpriceoffoodincreasedtemporarilyintheearly1970sbuthasdeclinedsince.,CerealYieldsandtheWorldPriceofFood,Figure6.3,ProductivityandtheStandardofLiving,stockofcapitalTotalamountofcapitalavailableforuseinproduction.,technologicalchangeDevelopmentofnewtechnologiesallowingfactorsofproductiontobeusedmoreeffectively.,LaborProductivity,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),laborproductivityAverageproductoflaborforanentireindustryorfortheeconomyasawhole.,PRODUCTIONWITHONEVARIABLEINPUT(LABOR),ThelevelofoutputperemployedpersonintheUnitedStatesin2006washigherthaninotherindustrialcountries.But,untilthe1990s,productivityintheUnitedStatesgrewonaveragelessrapidlythanproductivityinmostotherdevelopednations.Also,productivitygrowthduring19742006wasmuchlowerinalldevelopedcountriesthanithadbeeninthepast.,FRANCE,GERMANY,JAPAN,UNITEDKINGDOM,UNITEDSTATES,LABORINPUT,PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,Isoquants,isoquantCurveshowingallpossiblecombinationsofinputsthatyieldthesameoutput.,PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,Isoquants,isoquantmapGraphcombininganumberofisoquants,usedtodescribeaproductionfunction.,Asetofisoquants,orisoquantmap,describesthefirmsproductionfunction.Outputincreasesaswemovefromisoquantq1(atwhich55unitsperyearareproducedatpointssuchasAandD),toisoquantq2(75unitsperyearatpointssuchasB)andtoisoquantq3(90unitsperyearatpointssuchasCandE).,ProductionwithTwoVariableInputs,Figure6.4,PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,DiminishingMarginalReturns,Holdingtheamountofcapitalfixedataparticularlevelsay3,wecanseethateachadditionalunitoflaborgenerateslessandlessadditionaloutput.,PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,SubstitutionAmongInputs,Likeindifferencecurves,isoquantsaredownwardslopingandconvex.Theslopeoftheisoquantatanypointmeasuresthemarginalrateoftechnicalsubstitutiontheabilityofthefirmtoreplacecapitalwithlaborwhilemaintainingthesamelevelofoutput.Onisoquantq2,theMRTSfallsfrom2to1to2/3to1/3.,MarginalRateofTechnicalSubstitution,Figure6.5,marginalrateoftechnicalsubstitution(MRTS)Amountbywhichthequantityofoneinputcanbereducedwhenoneextraunitofanotherinputisused,sothatoutputremainsconstant.,MRTS=Changeincapitalinput/changeinlaborinput=K/L(forafixedlevelofq),(6.2),PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,ProductionFunctionsTwoSpecialCases,Whentheisoquantsarestraightlines,theMRTSisconstant.Thustherateatwhichcapitalandlaborcanbesubstitutedforeachotheristhesamenomatterwhatlevelofinputsisbeingused.PointsA,B,andCrepresentthreedifferentcapital-laborcombinationsthatgeneratethesameoutputq3.,IsoquantsWhenInputsArePerfectSubstitutes,Figure6.6,PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,ProductionFunctionsTwoSpecialCases,WhentheisoquantsareL-shaped,onlyonecombinationoflaborandcapitalcanbeusedtoproduceagivenoutput(asatpointAonisoquantq1,pointBonisoquantq2,andpointConisoquantq3).Addingmorelaboralonedoesnotincreaseoutput,nordoesaddingmorecapitalalone.,Fixed-ProportionsProductionFunction,Figure6.7,fixed-proportionsproductionfunctionProductionfunctionwithL-shapedisoquants,sothatonlyonecombinationoflaborandcapitalcanbeusedtoproduceeachlevelofoutput.,Thefixed-proportionsproductionfunctiondescribessituationsinwhichmethodsofproductionarelimited.,PRODUCTIONWITHTWOVARIABLEINPUTS,Awheatoutputof13,800bushelsperyearcanbeproducedwithdifferentcombinationsoflaborandcapital.Themorecapital-intensiveproductionprocessisshownaspointA,themorelabor-intensiveprocessaspointB.ThemarginalrateoftechnicalsubstitutionbetweenAandBis10/260=0.04.,IsoquantDescribingtheProductionofWheat,Figure6.8,RETURNSTOSCALE,returnstoscaleRateatwhichoutputincreasesasinputsareincreasedproportionately.,increasingreturnstoscaleSituationinwhichoutputmorethandoubleswhenallinputsaredoubled.,constantreturnstoscaleSituationinwhichoutputdoubleswhenallinputsaredoubled.,decreasingreturnstoscaleSituationinwhichoutputlessthandoubleswhenallinputsaredoubled.,RETURNSTOSCALE,Whenafirmsproductionprocessexhibitsconstantreturnstoscaleasshownbyamovementalongline0Ainpart(a),theisoquantsareequallyspacedasoutputincreasesproportionally.,ReturnstoScale,Figure6.9,However,whenthereareincreasingreturnstoscaleasshownin(b),theisoquantsmoveclosertogetherasinputsareincreasedalongtheline.,DescribingReturnstoScale,RETURNSTOSCALE,Overtime,themajorcarpetmanufacturershaveincreasedthescaleoftheiroperationsbyputtinglargerandmoreefficienttuftingmachinesintolargerplants.Atthesametime,theuseoflaborintheseplantshasalsoincreasedsignificantly.Theresult?
Proportionalincreasesininputshaveresultedinamorethanproportionalincreaseinoutputfortheselargerplants.,
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