社会语言学-7--Variation-Studies.ppt
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社会语言学-7--Variation-Studies.ppt
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Chapter7:
VariationStudiesAnEarlyStudy:
Fischer(1958):
(ng):
np159Thechoicebetweentheingandtheinvariantsappearstoberelatedtosex,class,personality(aggressive/cooperative),andmood(tense/relaxed)ofthespeaker,totheformalityoftheconversationandtothespecificverbspoken.NewYorkCity:
Labov(1966):
incidenceofrusepp161-165Membersofthehighestandlowestsocialgroupstendnottochangetheirpronunciationafteritbecomesfixedinadolescencebutmembersofmiddlesocialgroupssometimesdobecauseoftheirsocialaspirations.Therpronouncedassociatedwiththeuppermiddleclasseventhoughmembersofthatclassdonotalwaysusesuchpronunciations,nordotheyusethemonalloccasions.,Subjectivereactiontestspp162-163NewYorkersintheuppermiddleclassandundertheageof40almostunanimouslyapprovedr-pronunciationeventhoughfewerthanhalfactuallyusedrinallpossibleinstances.Peoplebelowtheageof20alsousedmorer-pronunciationthanpeoplebetweentheagesof20and40,afactthatwouldsuggestr-pronunciationtobeontheincrease.Abovetheageof40,approvalfellofftoabout60percentanduseshowedadramaticdeclinetolessthan10percent.Thelowermiddleclassspeakersnotonlyapproveofr-pronunciation,theyalsotendedtoexceedwhatappeartobethenormsforitsuseinthenexthighestclassinreadingwordlistsandinpronouncingminimalpairsofwords.Theamountofruseincreasesbysocialclassandbyformalityofstyle.Thelowermiddleclassspeakersout-performhisuppermiddleclassspeakersonwordlistsandpairs:
aninstanceofhypercorrection.Lowermiddleclassspeakersknowhowprestigiousr-pronunciationareand,whentheyareplacedinsituationswhichrequirethemtomonitortheirspeechclosely,theyout-performtheirreferencegroup,theuppermiddleclass.,NorwichandReadingTrugill(1974)p167Trugillsanalysisofthevariable(ng),(t)and(h)showsthatthehigherthesocialclassthemorefrequentistheuseof,tandhvariantsinwordslikesinging,butterandhammerratherthanthecorrespondingn,?
andvariants.Itsuseisrelatednotonlytosocialclassbutalsotosex,withfemalesshowingagreaterpreferenceforthanmales,regardlessofsocialclassmembership.Cheshire(1978)p168Cheshire,(s)3rdpersonsingularverbmarking,constraintsonusage:
averbstemalwaysstakestheswhenitisusedinthethirdpersonsingular,thesendingisfavoredinallpersonswhentheverbisavernacularverb(commonlyusedverbs),butthesisnotusedatalliftheverbhasacomplementinwhichtheverbinthecomplementismarkedfortense.Highfrequenciesofsusagewentwithhighindexscoresandlowfrequencieswithlowindexscores.(indexbasedonambition,degreeoftoughnessandpeergroupstatusinordertoassessthestrengthofanindividualsmembershipintheboysvernacularculture.),Cheshireconcludedthatvariationiscontrolledbybothsocialandlinguisticfactors.Inboysspeech,variationisgovernedbynormsthatarecentraltothevernacularculture,andaretransmittedthroughthepeergroup.Variationinthegirlsspeechappearstobeamorepersonalprocessandlessrigidlycontrolledbyvernacularnorms.Bothboysandgirlsaresubjecttotwolinguisticconstraintsontheformofregularpresent-tenseverbs,ofwhichonefavorstheuseofthenon-standardverbformandtheotherfavorstheuseofthestandardform.Afurtherobservationwasthatvariationintheformofhaveanddoappearstobeduetolinguisticchangesinprogress.”AtopicwillbeexplainedindetailinChapter8.,DetroitStudypp170-176Shuy,WolframandRiley(1968):
Whereasuppermiddleclassspeakersusedmultiplenegationonabout2percentofallpossibleoccasions,thecorrespondingpercentagesfortheotherthreesocialclasseswereasfollows:
lowermiddleclass,11percent,upperworkingclass,38percent,andlowerworkingclass,70percent.Althoughindividualsexhibitacertainamountofinconsistencyintheirlinguisticbehavior,thereisneverthelessapatterntothatbehavior.Wolframsstudy(1969)attemptedtoshowhowthedistributionoflinguisticvariablescorrelatedwithsuchfactorsassocialclass,sex,age,andracialorigin.Whereasitisquitepossiblethatthedifferencesbetweenthetwogroupsateachoftheends,i.e.,betweentheuppermiddleandthelowermiddleclassesandbetweentheupperworkingandthelowerworkingclasses,maynotbesignificant,therebeingonly12subjectsineachgroup,thedifferencebetweenthetoptwogroupsasawholeandthebottomtwogroupsasawhole,i.e.,betweenthemiddleclassandtheworkingclass,almostcertainlyisandprobablyataveryhighlevelofsignificance.Socialstatuswasthesinglemostimportantvariablecorrelatingwithlinguisticdifferences,withtheclearestboundarybeingbetweenthelowermiddleandupperworkingclasses.,MacaulaysstudyinGlasgow(1977)p173Aclearcorrelationbetweenvariationandsocialclass.Histwolowestclassestobemuchalikeinbehavior.Withmales,thegreatestdifferencebetweenclasseswasbetweenhistopclass(professionalandmanagerial)andthesecondhighestclass(whitecollar),whereaswithfemalesthegreatestdifferencewasbetweenthetwointermediateclasses(whitecollarandskilledmanual).Increaseinagealsoseemedtobeassociatedwithanincreaseinthedifferencebetweensocialclasses,thisdifferenceshowingitselftobeclearlyestablishedinthe15yearoldssurveyed(butapparentlyalsointhe10yearolds).Whenindividualrathergroupbehaviorwasplottedforeachvariable,acontinuumofbehaviorwasexhibitedineachcase(thebehaviorofcertainindividualsineachclassoverlappingthebehaviorofindividualsinneighboringclasses).Wecanconcludefromhisstudythatthelinguisticbehaviorofindividualsformsacontinuuminthesamewaythatsocialorganizationiscontinuous.Socialclassesareconstructsimposedonthiscontinuum.Iflinguisticvariationiscorrelatedwiththeaveragebehaviorofindividualsintheseclasses,itwillshowclassdifference.,SankoffandCedergren(1971)p174Thedistributionofthevariantsofthe(l)variableinOntrealFrenchisrelatetobothphonologicalandgrammaticalfactors,notjustsocialones.The(l)isaffectedbyitsrelationshiptothefollowingphonologicalsegmentandwhetheritoccursineitherapersonalorimpersonalpronoun,whentheseareevenofidenticalform,i.e.,il.SankoffandVincent(1977)pp174-175Neappearsincontextswherespeakersaremostlikelytobeawareofitself,andtobemonitoringtheirownspeech.Thetopicoflanguage,instruction,disciplineandreligiontendtospiritpeoplebacktoanormativeworldinwhichproperlanguagebecomesverysalient.,Hudson(1996:
178-180)pp175-176Thereisnooverlapwithinaparticularsex,sothatallmembersoftheuniversity-educatedmalegroupuselessassimilationthanallmembersofthenextgroup,thosewithsecondaryeducation,andthose,inturn,lessthanthemenwithprimaryeducation,andsoon.Thereareoverlapsbetweensexes,butevenherethepatternisentirelyconsistentinthatmalesalwaysoverlapthenextlowestgroupoffemales.Thatis,ifvowelassimilationisdispreferred,beingassociatedwithloweducationalattainment,malesshowtheconsequencesofthisjustalittlelessthandofemales.,Belfast:
MilroyandMilroy(1978),Milroy(1980,1987a)pp177-179Socialnetworks,whichoriginateinkinshipties,determineanindividualsaccesstoemploymentandtootherresources.Peopledevelopcloseandcontinuingrelationshipswitheachother,andtheyhelponeanother,firsttheirkinandthentheirco-religionists.Howastablesetoflinguisticnormsemergesandmaintainsitselfinacommunity.LesleyMilroycallsthesevernacularnorms,normswhichareperceivedassymbolizingvaluesofsolidarityandreciprocityratherstatus,andarenotpubliclycodifiedorrecognized.Eachinformantisplacedonasix-pointscalewhichcharacterizedthatpersonsparticipationinnetworks.Thescaleforscoringindividualnetworkstrengthusedthefollowingfactors:
membershipinahigh-density,territoriallybasedcluster,kinshipintheintermediateneighborhood,workingwithatleasttwopeopleofthesamesexfromthesamearea,andvoluntaryleisure-timeassociationwithworkmates.TheMilroysexamined8linguisticvariablesandfoundsignificantcorrelationsbetweennetworkstrengthandlinguisticusageonfiveofthese,twoatp0.01(i.e.,thereislessthanonechanceinahundredthatthereisnosuchrelationship)andthreeatp0.05(i.e.,hereislessthanonechanceintwentythatthereisnosuchrelationship).,Acloserinspectionoftheresultsbycommunityshowedthat,withoneexception,itwasonlyinBallymacarrettthattherewasasignificantcorrelationbetweenthevariablesandnetworkstrength.ThegreaterthenetworkstrengththegreatertheincidenceofthevariantsidentifiedwiththeBelfastvernacular.Asignificantdifferencealsoexistsbetweenmenandwomenintheiruseofthevernacular,withmenshowingamuchgreaterincidenceofvernacularusage.Thestrongerthesocialnetwork,thegreatertheuseofcertainlinguisticfeaturesofthevernacular.TheresultssupportMilroyshypothesisthataclose-knitnetworkhasthecapacitytofunctionasanormenforcementmechanism;thereisnoreasontosupposethatlinguisticnormsareexemptedfromthisprocess.Moreover,aclose-knitnetworkstructureappearstobeverycommoninlowstatuscommunities.Sheaddsthattheclose-knitnetworkmaybeseenasanimportantsocialmechanismofvernacularmaintenance,capableofoperatingeffectivelyinoppositiontoapubliclyendorsedandstatus-orientedsetoflegitimizedlinguisticnorms.Onceagain,weseehowlow-statusvarietiesofalanguagemaintainthemselvesinthefaceofheavycompetitionfromabove:
theyenablethosewhousethemtoshowtheirsolidaritywithoneanoth
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- 社会 语言学 Variation Studies