Argumentation议论文特征.docx
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Argumentation议论文特征.docx
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Argumentation议论文特征
Argumentation
Aims:
1.Knowingtodefinetheterm,
2.Comparingthisstyleofwritingwithexposition,description,andnarration
3.KnowingrequirementsofaGOODargumentativeessay
4.Knowinghowtooutlineanaugmentativeessay:
threeparts.
Procedure:
(theory-practice)
Thepurposeofexpositionistoinform;thepurposeofargumentation,ontheotherhand,istoconvince.Whileanexpositorypapermakesknownsomethingandexplainsittomakethereaderunderstand,anargumentativeessaytriestomakethereaderagreewithitspointofviewandsupportit,topersuadehimtochangehismindorbehavior,andtoapproveapolicyoracourseofactionthatitproposes.Speechesonpolicies,editorialsofnewspapers,articlesonpoliticalortheoreticalquestions,andvariousproposalsareoftenargumentative.
Argumentationfrequentlymakesuseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting---description,narration,andaboveallexposition,forargumentationandexpositionareverycloselyrelated---argumentationisactuallyexpositionwiththeadditionalpurposeofconvincingorpersuading.
Althoughtheycantakedifferentshapes,argumentativeessayshavecertainbasicfeaturesincommon.Ifyouwishtowriteagoodargumentativeessay,youshoulddoyourbesttomeetthefollowingrequirements:
(1)Adebatablepoint
Itisimperativethatthepapershouldhaveadebatablepoint,thatis,somethingwhichcanbeviewedfrommorethanoneangleandisthereforeopentodispute.Generallyspeaking,thefollowingarenotgoodthemes.
1)Merestatementsoffacts
“Chinesedoctorsuseacupunctureanesthesiatoperformcertainoperations”isafactthatcannotbedebated.Butifitischangedinto“acupunctureanesthesiashouldreplaceconventionalanesthesiainalloperations”,itbecomesdebatable.
2)Statementsofpersonalpreference
“BaJinismyfavoriteauthor”expressespersonalpreferencewhichdoesnotleadtodispute.Butastatementlike“BaJinisthegreatestChinesewriterofthe20thcentury”isdisputableandsufficientevidenceshouldbeprovided.
3)Viewpointsthataregenerallyacceptedorcanbeeasilyverified
Itisuniversallyknownthat“noisepollutionisharmfultopeople’shealth”,butitisnotgenerallyacceptedthat“noisepollutionisthemostharmfulofallenvironmentalpollution”.Theformerviewpointcanbeproved,butthelaterisarguable.
(2)Sufficientevidence
Sincethepointofyourpaperisnotafact,astatementofpersonaltaste,oraviewpointuniversallyaccepted,youwillhavetoprovidesufficientevidencetoconvincethereader.Sufficientevidenceincludescommonknowledge;specificexamples;hard,notsoft,evidence,orfacts,notopinions,unlesstheopinionsareexpertandauthoritative;statistics;andquotationsfromauthorities.Validevidenceisthatwhichisclearlyanddirectlyconnectedwiththepointtobeproved.
(3)Goodlogic
Itisobviousthatgoodlogicisevenmoreimportanttoargumentationthantoanyothertypesofwriting.Allthefactsandreasonsthataregivenasevidenceshouldbelogicallyconnectedwiththeconclusionandwitheachother.Anyfallacyinlogicorwrongstepinreasoningwouldleavethereaderindoubtaboutthewholeargument.
Therearegenerallytwowaysofreasoning:
1)Inductivereasoning(fromspecificfactstoageneralconclusion)
Inductivereasoningisthemorecommonway.Whenyouuseinduction,youstartwithfactsandproceedfromfactstoageneralconclusion.Inotherwords,youmovefromspecificexamplestoageneralstatement.
2)Deductivereasoning(fromageneralstatementtoaspecificconclusion)
Theprocessisjusttheoppositeofinductivereasoning---itmovesfromageneralstatementtoaspecificconclusion.Itworksonthemodelofsyllogism---athree-partargumentinwhichtherearetwostatements,knownasthemajorpremiseandtheminorpremise,andaconclusion.
Hereisanexampleofasyllogism:
A.Allhumanbeingsmakemistakes.(ageneralstatement)
B.Xisahumanbeing.
C.Therefore,Xmakesmistakes.(aspecificconclusion)
Fromtheaboveexamplewecanseethatthemajorpremisemustbeanacceptedgeneralization,andtheminor,afactualexampleofthatgeneralization.IfAandBaretrue,C,theconclusion,isboundtobetrue.
Youmustbeverycarefulaboutyourpremises,especiallyyourmajorpremise,suchstatementsas“allstudentslovetostudy”and“womenaremoreimaginativethanmen”arenotgenerallyaccepted,andthereforecannotbeusedasmajorpremises.
(4)Clearlogic
Atypicalargumentativeessayconsistsofthreeparts:
anintroductionwhichidentifiestheissuetobediscussedandexplainstheimportanceofsuchadiscussion;abodywhichpresentstheevidence;andaconclusioninwhichtheproposition,ifitisstatedatthebeginning,isreaffirmed.
Inthebody,itisadvisablethatyoudevotethefirstoneortwoparagraphstoaconsiderationoftheothersideofthecasebeforestatingandamplifyingyourownviews.Thenineachparagraphthatfollows,youaddsomethingnewandimportanttoyourargument.Theevidenceyouprovideshouldbearranged
A.fromtheleastimportanttothemostimportant,
B.fromthemostfamiliartotheleastfamiliar,and
C.fromtheeasiesttoacceptorcomprehendtothemostdifficult.
(5)Gooduseoftheotherthreetypesofwriting---description,narration,andespeciallythevariousmethodsofexposition
(6)Anhonestandfriendlyattitude
Toargueisnottoquarrelorfight.Theforceofanargumentdoesnotcomefromabuse,sarcasm,exaggeration,orfierceattack,butfromsolidevidence,logicalreasoning,andcarefulanalysis.Adomineeringorhostiletonecouldonlyraisedoubtsaboutyourgoodfaithandimpairthecredibilityofyourargument,whereasanhonestandfriendlyattitudewillhelpwinthetrustofyourreaders.
Takecarethatyouneitheroverstateorunderstate,andavoidoveruseofsuchwordsandphrasesas“perhaps”,“maybe”,“sometimes”,“moreoften”,“nearlyalways”,“Ithink”,or“inmyopinion”,whichinvariablyweakentheforceofyourargument.
Models
TheHarmfulEffectsoftheMultiple-ChoiceTest
Themultiple-choicetestisacommonexaminationformthatiswidelyusedasastandardinternationaltestingmethodinvariousacademicfields,especiallyinlanguagetesting.Someeducatorsandteachersembraceitasamostscientifictestformforitsobjectivity,accuracyandhighefficiencyofgradingtestpapers.However,aftermanyyearsofapplication,investigationandresearch,otherteachersandeducatorshaveadmittedthattojudgestudents’realandpracticalabilities,suchtestingmethodhasmanylimitationsanddrawbacks.Inmyopinion,forallitsefficiency,objectivityandvalidity,themultiple-choicetestshouldnotbewidelyusedfortheexaminationsofacademiccoursesoncampus.
Thosewhoarguefortheadvantagesofthemultiple-choicetestbelievethatsuchtestscangreatlyimprovetheaccuracyandspeedoftestpapergrading.Thestandardizedanswersheetsofsuchtestmakeitpossibleforcomputerstoreplacementogradethepapers.Undoubtedly,thecomputerizationoftestpapergradingnotonlyimprovethespeedofgradingtestpapers,butalsoeliminatesthesubjectivefactorsofbiasorpreferencethatcannotbetotallyavoidedbythosewhogradethem.Here,computersorelectronicdevicesareconsideredasthenormforscientifictestingmethod.Itmaybesafetocheckmanufacturedproductsbyelectronicdevicesfortheirqualities.Yet,tochecktherealabilitiesandpotentialsofcomplexhumanbeings,suchdevicesandsuchtestingmethodarefarfromenough.Infact,manyproblemsfromsuchtestingdoexist.
Firstofall,itisconvenientforstudentstocheatinthemultiple-choicetest.Thestandardizationofanswersheetsmakesiteasierforstudentstoplagiarizeothers’answers.ThechoicesofA.B.C.D.aremostclearlyprintedontheanswersheetsortestpapers.Withonlyaquickglance,anystudentwhoattemptstocheatintheexamcansurelystealthecorrectchoicefromwhoeverisnearbyandwhoeverisconsideredasagoodstudent.What’smore,somestudentsmayhavesomesecretdealamongthemselvesintheexam,deliveringgenerousservicetotheneeded.Inthiscase,evenwhentheyareseparatedfromeachotherwithconsiderabledistancebytheproctor/invigilator,theycanstillsucceed.Theproctormayfeelquitehelplessbecauseeventhoughtheysometimesseeorfeelstudentscheating,theycannotpinpointorprovehowthestudentsarecheatingintheexam.Thisinawayencouragesthestudents’misconductandleadstotheirethicaldegradation.
Secondly,themultiple-choicetestisoftenlikeagambling.Doingwellinsuchanexamisinsomewaybecomingamatterofchance.Accordingtothelawofprobability,ifaquestionhasfourchoices,thentheprobabilityoftherightanswerwillbeashighas25%.Evenisaperson,absolutelyignorantofknowledgeofthatsubject,takepartinthemultiple-choicetest,hewillhave25%chancesofgettingtherightanswer,justbyguess.Becauseofthischaracteristic,somestudents’attitudeandattentiontostudymaybequitemisledandtheircapabilityandflexibilitymaybeweakened.Forexample,weusedtoanswerthemultiple-choicetestsatmiddleschools.Whenwecometocollegeandfaceaproblemofansweringvariousquestionsinmoredetailsbywritingorbyspeaking,weareataloss,nottomentionourdifficultyinwritingEnglishcompositions.
Thirdly,themultiple-choicetestfailstoevaluatethestudents’abilitiesthoroughly,especiallytheirpotentialabilities.Owingtothenatureofsuchatestform,thefourlettersontheanswersheetcannotrevealthethoughtprocessofthestudentswhotaketheexams.Weallknowthatthoughtprocessisther
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