英文语义学PPT资料.ppt
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英文语义学PPT资料.ppt
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1.Definitionofsemantics2.Whatismeaning?
3.Differentkindsofmeaning4.Majortheoriesonthestudyofmeaning5.Senserelationshipbetweenwords6.Senserelationsbetweensentences7.Analysisofmeaning(componentialanalysis,predicationanalysis),Semanticsisgenerallyconsideredtobethestudyofmeaninginlanguage.,1.WhatisSemantics?
DatingfromPlato,thestudyofmeaninghasalonghistory.Philosophers,psychologists,andsociologistsallclaimadeepinterestinthestudyofmeaning,althoughtheydifferintheirfocusofinterest.Philosophers:
therelationbetweenlinguisticexpressionandwhattheyrefertointherealworldandevaluationofthetruthvalueofit.Psychologists:
understandingtheworkingofhumanmindthroughlanguage.,History:
Inlinguistics,comparedwithotherbrancheswehavediscussed,semanticsisveryyoungandnew.Butitalsohasalonghistory.“Cinderellaoflinguistics”(Kempson)ThetermsemanticsisarecentadditiontotheEnglishlanguage.Ithasonlyahistoryofalittleoverahundredyears.,2.whatismeaning?
Whatdoes“imperialism”mean?
(signify)Ididntmeantohurtyou.(intend)Lifewithoutfaithhasnomeaning.(value)Iknowtheguyyoumean.(referto)Hedoesnttknowthemeaningoftheword“fear”(sense)Tendollarswouldmeanalottome.(matter)Ifoundaroadthatwasntmeanttobethere.(supposedto)Perhapsyouaremeanttobecomeajournalistratherthanalawyer.(destined),1894itwasintroducedinapaperentitled“Reflectedmeanings:
apointinsemantics”1897Brealfirstuseditasthescienceofmeaning.1900itsEnglishversioncameout1980ssemanticsbegantobeintroducedintoChinaOneofthemostfamousbooksonsemanticsisTheMeaningofMeaningpublishedin1923.Leech.G.N.Semantics.London:
PenguinBooksLtd,1974.Palmer.F.R.Semantics.Cambridge:
CUP,1976.,Asatechnicalterminsemantics,thewordofmeaningshouldhaveitsdefinition.However,itisacontroversialissueandsofarthereisnoagreementatthispointamonglinguists.,Generally,wesayalinguisticformhastwotypesofmeaning:
denotationandconnotation.Denotativemeaning:
theperson,object,abstractnotion,event,orstatewhichtheworddenotes.E.g.Sofa,Johnscar,perplexity,Robertislyingonthebed.Connotativemeaning:
theovertones(implications)ofmeaning,thatiswhatthelinguisticformsuggests.E.g.ABCslimthinskinnystrong-mindedfirmpig-headedPublicservantgovernmentemployeebureaucratinvestigatordetectivespyDeceasediepeggedoutstatesmanpolitician,Notes:
1)somewordsdonothavenegativeconnotationswhentheyareusedgenerally.Butinsometextstheymayhaveadditionalmeaning.(context-specific)e.g.when“boy”isusedbya20-year-oldwhitemantoa40-year-oldblackman,itobviouslyhasanegativeconnotationreflectingtheattitudeofthespeaker.2)somewordsorphrasesalwayshavenegativeassociations.E.g.thenumber“4”inChinese,“13”inEnglish3)connotationislanguage-specific,e.g.propaganda(disseminationofsomeideasithasthemeaningofexaggeratingandevenfalsifyingsomefacts)imperialism(negativetoChinese,butneutralevenpositivetowesterners“ImperialInn”“ImperialHotel”)whatabout“turtle”,“dragon”“communism”?
4)semanticswillmainlydealwithdenotativemeaning,ratherthanconnotativemeaning,3.DifferentkindsofmeaningG.Leech(1974)“Semantics”Leechsseventypesofmeaning1.Conceptualmeaningalsocalled“denotative”or“cognitive”meaning.Thisreferstothedefinitiongiveninthedictionary.Itiswidelyassumedtobethecentralfactorinlinguisticcommunicationandisintegraltotheessentialfunctioningoflanguage.Man+Human+Male+AdultGirl+Human-Male-Adult,2.Associativemeaningmeaningassociatedwiththeconceptualmeaningwhichcanbefurtherdividedintofollowingtypes:
a)connotativemeaningb)socialmeaningc)affectivemeaningd)reflectedmeaninge)collocativemeaning3.Thematicmeaning,a)connotativemeaningcommunicativevalueattributedtoanexpressionoverandaboveitspurelyconceptualmeaning.“woman”unappreciableproperties:
frail,pronetotears,cowardly,irrational,inconstant,short-sightedvirtues:
gentle,hardworking,sensitiveb)socialmeaningwhatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse,includingvariationslikedialect,time,topic,styleetc.E.g.“thou”“管”usedinNorthernpartofAnhuiprovince.,c)affectivemeaningfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writermother(love,care)maternalparent(neutral)d)reflectedmeaningthemeaningwhenweassociateonesenseofanexpressionwithanother.e.g.“dear”e)collocativemeaningwhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.E.g.rotten(general)addledeggs,rancidbaconandbutter,sourmilk,putridfish,fetidbreath.Whatabout“on”in“turnon”,“jumpon”?
Thematicmeaning:
Thisiswhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.Nowcomparethefollowingpairofsentences:
Theyoungmandonatedthekidneyvoluntarily.Thekidneywasdonatedbyayoungmanvoluntarily.Thetwosentencesexpressthesameconceptualmeaning,buttheyhavedifferentcommunicativevalues,buttheyanswerdifferentquestions.Whatarethey?
“whatdidtheyoungmandonate?
”“whowasthekidneydonatedby?
”,Theme/Rhemetheory:
asentencecanbesegmentedintotwoparts:
thefirstpart,termedtheme(主位),isthestartingpoint,whichusuallyconveystheGiveninformation,seenbythespeakertobeknowntotheaddressee.Therest,termedtheRheme(述位),conveystheinformationwhichisNew,unknownorassumedbythespeakertobeunknowntotheaddressee.(PragueSchool)E.g.Isawamaninthestreet.Hewasthesonofmyneighbor.,4.Majortheoriesconcerningthestudyofmeaning,Theformisawordinalanguageandthemeaningistheobjectintheworldthatitstandsfor,referstoordenotes.,1)NamingTheory?
2)Evenwithnouns,therewillbeproblems,becausemanynounssuchasunicorn,fairy,ghost,heavenrelatetocreaturesorthingsthatdonotexist.,Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.,Inotherwords,thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenwordsandthingsistherelationshipofnaming.,WeakpointsofNamingTheories,1)Thistheoryseemstoapplyonlytonouns.,2)Evenwithnouns,therewillbeproblems,becausemanynounssuchasunicorn,fairy,ghost,heavenrelatetocreaturesorthingsthatdonotexist.,2)Contextandbehaviourism,Duringtheperiodroughlyfrom1930to1960,linguistsgavepre-eminencetotheempiricalorobservationalaspectinthestudyofmeaning.,Thistheoryholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context-elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.,Firth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiodheldtheviewthat“Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”,apieceofpaper,adailypaper,anexaminationpaper,awhitepaper,atermpaper,3)behaviouristtheory,AccordingtoBloomfield,themeaningofalinguisticformshouldbeviewedas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersit,andtheresponsewhichitcallsforthinthehearer.”,S,r,s,R,Eventsbeforespeech,Eventsafterspeech,Speech,thefamousaccountofJackandJill,S,r,s,R,Eventsbeforespeech,Eventsafterspeech,Speech,BloomfieldarguedthatmeaningconsistsintherelationbetweenspeechandthepracticaleventsSandRthatprecedeandfollowit.,4)Concepts,Thistheoryholdsthatwordsandthingsarerelatedthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.,ThiscanbebestillustratedbytheSemioticTriangleadvancedbyOgdenandRichards.,ThoughtorReference,Symbol,Referent,ThoughtorReference,Symbol,Referent,Linguisticelementssuchaswordsorsentences,Theobject,etc,intheworldofexperience,concept,Accordingtothistheory,thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolandreferent(betweenlanguageandtheworld).Thelinkisviathoughtorreference,theconceptsofourminds.,Thistheoryraisesanewproblem.Forexample,whatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandconcept?
Weakpoints?
Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone-whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.,Theproblemisthatpeopledontactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmindseyeeverytimetheyutteraword.,5)Mentalism,ThisapproachhasbeenheadedbyChomskysince1960s.Mentalistsbelievethatdataneededforthestudyoflanguagecanbesuppliedbydirectresorttointuition.,Theyarguethatpeopleoftenjudgewhichsentencesaresynonymous,whichsentencesareambiguous,whichsentencesareill-formedorabsurd,basedontheirintuition.,Thereforetheyregardthetaskofsemanticsmainlyasonetoexplainthosedatasuppliedbydirectresorttointuitionbyconstructingtheories,TheSYMBOLreferstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),theREFERENTreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,andTHOUGHTorREFERENCEreferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeakerofthelanguage,andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.e.g.Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly.Theword“dog”isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind(theuseofmind),i.e.whata“dog”islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothereferent(theparticulardog)inthisparticularcase.,Commentsonthetheory:
1)meaningsdontresideinwords,butinpeoplesminds2)individualpeoplehavedifferencesintheirexperiencesandpersonalbackgrounds,whichaffecthowpeoplethink.3)Phenomenonofsinglewordbutneglectsthesemanticrelationshipamongwords.,5.Senserelationship,Senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves;
itisconcernedonlywithintra-linguistic
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