salam.docx
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salam.docx
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salam
1.Whatisliterature?
Literature(fromLatinlitterae(plural);letter)istheartofwrittenworkandcan,insomecircumstances,referexclusivelytopublishedsources.Thewordliteratureliterallymeans"thingsmadefromletters"andtheparsprotototerm"letters"issometimesusedtosignify"literature,"asinthefiguresofspeech"artsandletters"and"manofletters."Literatureiscommonlyclassifiedashavingtwomajorforms—fictionandnon-fiction—andtwomajortechniques—poetryandpros
Literaturemayconsistoftextsbasedonfactualinformation(journalisticornon-fiction),aswellasonoriginalimagination,suchaspolemicalworksaswellasautobiography,andreflectiveessaysaswellasbelles-lettres.Literaturecanbeclassifiedaccordingtohistoricalperiods,genres,andpoliticalinfluences.
Theconceptofgenre,whichearlierwaslimited,hasbroadenedoverthecenturies.Agenreconsistsofartisticworkswhichfallwithinacertaincentraltheme,andexamplesofgenreincluderomance,mystery,crime,fantasy,erotica,andadventure,amongothers.ImportanthistoricalperiodsinEnglishliteratureincludeOldEnglish,MiddleEnglish,theRenaissance,the17thCenturyShakespeareanandElizabethantimes,the18thCenturyRestoration,19thCenturyVictorian,and20thCenturyModernism.Importantintellectualmovementsthathaveinfluencedthestudyofliteratureincludefeminism,post-colonialism,psychoanalysis,post-structuralism,post-modernism,romanticism,andMarxism.
Philosophical,historical,journalistic,andscientificwritingsaretraditionallyrankedasliterature.Theyoffersomeoftheoldestprosewritingsinexistence;novelsandprosestoriesearnedthenames"fiction"todistinguishthemfromfactualwritingornonfiction,whichwritershistoricallyhavecraftedinprose.
[edit]Naturalscience
Asadvancesandspecializationhavemadenewscientificresearchinaccessibletomostaudiences,the"literary"natureofsciencewritinghasbecomelesspronouncedoverthelasttwocenturies.Now,scienceappearsmostlyinjournals.ScientificworksofAristotle,Copernicus,andNewtonstillpossessgreatvalue,butsincethescienceinthemhaslargelybecomeoutdated,theynolongerserveforscientificinstruction.Yet,theyremaintootechnicaltositwellinmostprogrammesofliterarystudy.Outsideof"historyofscience"programmes,studentsrarelyreadsuchworks.
[edit]Philosophy
Philosophy,too,hasbecomeanincreasinglyacademicdiscipline.Moreofitspractitionerslamentthissituationthanoccurswiththesciences;nonethelessmostnewphilosophicalworkappearsinacademicjournals.Majorphilosophersthroughhistory—Plato,Aristotle,Socrates,Augustine,Descartes,Kierkegaard,Nietzsche—havebecomeascanonicalasanywriters.Somerecentphilosophyworksarearguedtomeritthetitle"literature",suchassomeoftheworksbySimonBlackburn;butmuchofitdoesnot,andsomeareas,suchaslogic,havebecomeextremelytechnicaltoadegreesimilartothatofmathematics.
[edit]History
Agreatdealofhistoricalwritingranksasliterature,particularlythegenreknownascreativenonfiction.Socanagreatdealofjournalism,suchasliteraryjournalism.Howevertheseareashavebecomeextremelylarge,andoftenhaveaprimarilyutilitarianpurpose:
torecorddataorconveyimmediateinformation.Asaresultthewritinginthesefieldsoftenlacksaliteraryquality,althoughitoftenandinitsbettermomentshasthatquality.Major"literary"historiansincludeHerodotus,ThucydidesandProcopius,allofwhomcountascanonicalliteraryfigures.
[edit]Law
Lawoffersalessclearcase.SomewritingsofPlatoandAristotle,thelawtablesofHammurabiofBabylon,oreventheearlypartsoftheBiblecouldbeseenaslegalliterature.RomancivillawascodifiedintheCorpusJurisCivilisduringthereignofJustinianIoftheByzantineEmpirehasareputationassignificantliterature.Thefoundingdocumentsofmanycountries,includingConstitutionsandLawCodes,cancountasliterature;however,mostlegalwritingsrarelyexhibitmuchliterarymerit,astheytendtoberathergarrulous.
[edit]Drama
Amagiccarpet,wasalegendarycarpetthatcanbeusedtotransportpersonswhoareonitinstantaneouslyorquicklytotheirdestinationinthestoriesoftheOneThousandandOneNights.
Aplayordramaoffersanotherclassicalliteraryformthathascontinuedtoevolveovertheyears.Itgenerallycompriseschieflydialoguebetweencharacters,andusuallyaimsatdramatic/theatricalperformance(seetheatre)ratherthanatreading.Duringthe18thand19thcenturies,operadevelopedasacombinationofpoetry,drama,andmusic.Nearlyalldramatookverseformuntilcomparativelyrecently.Shakespearecouldbeconsidereddrama.RomeoandJuliet,forexample,isaclassicromanticdramagenerallyacceptedasliterature.
Greekdramaexemplifiestheearliestformofdramaofwhichwehavesubstantialknowledge.Tragedy,asadramaticgenre,developedasaperformanceassociatedwithreligiousandcivicfestivals,typicallyenactingordevelopinguponwell-knownhistoricalormythologicalthemes.Tragediesgenerallypresentedveryseriousthemes.Withtheadventofnewertechnologies,scriptswrittenfornon-stagemediahavebeenaddedtothisform.WaroftheWorlds(radio)in1938sawtheadventofliteraturewrittenforradiobroadcast,andmanyworksofDramahavebeenadaptedforfilmortelevision.Conversely,television,film,andradioliteraturehavebeenadaptedtoprintedorelectronicmedia.
[edit]Oralliterature
Thetermoralliteraturerefersnottowritten,buttooraltraditions,whichincludesdifferenttypesofepic,poetryanddrama,folktales,ballads.Howevertheuseofthisoxymoroniscontroversialandnotgenerallyacceptedbythescientificcommunity.Someprefertoavoidtheetymologicalquestionusing"oralnarrativetradition","oralsacredtradition","oralpoetry"ordirectlyusingepicsorpoetry(termsthatdonotnecessarilyimplywriting),othersprefertocreateneologismsasorature.
[edit]Othernarrativeforms
∙Electronicliteratureisaliterarygenreconsistingofworkswhichoriginateindigitalenvironments.
∙Films,videosandbroadcastsoapoperashavecarvedoutanichewhichoftenparallelsthefunctionalityofprosefiction.
∙Graphicnovelsandcomicbookspresentstoriestoldinacombinationofsequentialartwork,dialogueandtext.
[edit]Genresofliterature
Furtherinformation:
Listofliterarygenres
Literarygenreisamodeofcategorisingliterature.ThetermoriginatesfromFrench,designatingaproposedtypeorclass.[4]However,suchclassesaresubjecttochange,andhavebeenusedindifferentwaysindifferentperiodsandtraditions.
[edit]Literarytechniques
Mainarticle:
Literarytechnique
Aliterarytechniqueorliterarydevicecanbeusedbyauthorsinordertoenhancethewrittenframeworkofapieceofliterature,andproducespecificeffects.Literarytechniquesencompassawiderangeofapproachestocraftingawork:
whetheraworkisnarratedinfirst-personorfromanotherperspective,whethertouseatraditionallinearnarrativeoranonlinearnarrative,orthechoiceofliterarygenre,areallexamplesofliterarytechnique.Theymayindicatetoareaderthatthereisafamiliarstructureandpresentationtoawork,suchasaconventionalmurder-mysterynovel;or,theauthormaychoosetoexperimentwiththeirtechniquetosurprisethereader.
Inthisway,useofatechniquecanleadtothedevelopmentofanewgenre,aswasthecasewithoneofthefirstmodernnovels,PamelabySamuelRichardson.Pamelaiswrittenasacollectionofletter-writingcorrespondence,called"epistolarytechnique";byusingthistechnique,Pamelastrengthenedthetraditionoftheepistolarynovel,agenrewhichhadbeenpracticedforsometimealreadybutwithoutthesameacclaim.
Literarytechniqueisdistinguishedfromliterarydevice,asmilitarytacticsaredistinguishedfrommilitarystrategy.Devicesarespecificconstructionswithinthenarrativethatmakeiteffective.Examplesincludemetaphor,simile,ellipsis,narrativemotifs,andallegory.Evensimplewordplayfunctionsasaliterarydevice.Thenarrativemodemaybeconsideredaliterarydevice,suchastheuseofstream-of-consciousnessnarrative.
Literarycriticismimpliesacritiqueandevaluationofapieceofliteratureand,insomecases,itisusedtoimproveaworkinprogressoraclassicalpiece,aswithanongoingtheatreproduction.Literaryeditorscanserveasimilarpurposefortheauthorswithwhomtheywork.Therearemanytypesofliterarycriticismandeachcanbeusedtocritiqueapieceinadifferentwayorcritiqueadifferentaspectofapiece.
[edit]Legalstatus
[edit]UK
Literaryworkshavebeenprotectedbycopyrightlawfromunauthorisedreproductionsinceatleast1710.[5]Literaryworksaredefinedbycopyrightlawtomeananywork,otherthanadramaticormusicalwork,whichiswritten,spokenorsung,andaccordinglyincludes(a)atableorcompilation(otherthanadatabase),(b)acomputerprogram,(c)preparatorydesignmaterialforacomputerprogram,and(d)adatabase.
Itshouldbenotedthatliteraryworksarenotlimitedtoworksofliterature,butincludeallworksexpressedinprintorwriting(otherthandramaticormusicalworks).[6]
2。
中国朦胧诗
朦胧诗派:
70年代末80年代初出现的诗派,其代表人物有北岛、舒婷、顾城、江河、杨炼等。
作为一个创作群体,“朦胧诗”并没有形成统一的组织形式,也未曾发表宣言,然而却以各自独立又呈现出共性的艺术主张和创作实绩,构成一个“崛起的诗群”。
关于朦胧诗曾在当时文坛引起论争。
“朦胧诗”精神内涵的三个层面是:
一揭露黑暗和社会批判,二是在黑暗中寻找光明,反思与探求意识以及浓厚的英雄主义色彩,三是在人道主义基础上建立起来的对“人”的特别关注。
“朦胧诗”改写了以往诗歌单纯描摹“现实”与图解政策的传统模式,把诗歌作为探求人生的重要方式,在哲学意义上达到了前所未有的高度。
从某种意义上讲,“朦胧诗”的崛起,也是中国文学生命之树的崛起。
朦胧诗派
1980年开始,诗坛出现了一个新的诗派,被称为“朦胧派”。
以舒婷、顾城、北岛、江河等为先驱者的一群青年诗人,“朦胧诗派”并没有形成统一的组织形式,也未曾发表宣言,然而
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