巧妙设计活动 优化课堂教学 培训2.docx
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巧妙设计活动 优化课堂教学 培训2.docx
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巧妙设计活动优化课堂教学培训2
2Analysinglanguageskills
2.1Introduction
Beforeweproceed,inChapter3,toconsiderinmoredetailthecom-ponentsofalanguagelearningtask,weneedtodrawtogetherwhatweknowaboutlanguageuse.Weshalldothisbylookingatrecentresearchintothenatureofwhatwemaycallthefourmacroskillsoflistening,speaking,readingandwriting.
Wehavealreadynotedthataconventionalapproachtosyllabusdesignhasbeentoproducespecificationsorinventoriesofdiscretelinguisticitemstobuildintocompositeitemsinthelearningprogramme.Thesespecificationshavevariouslytakentheshapeoflistsofforms,orfunctions,ornotions,orparticularskills.Itisthelastofthesecategories,withitsemphasisonlanguagebehaviour,whichweshallfindmostusefulinhelpingustochartthoselanguageactivitieswhichwillhelpusmakeupourlanguagelearningtasks.
WheninChapter3weconstructaframeworkfordesigningandmonitoringtasks,weshallbeconsideringalltheskillsconjointlyastheyinteractwitheachotherinnaturalbehaviour.Inreallifeasintheclassroom,mosttasksofanycomplexityinvolvemorethanonemacroskill.Thereareoccasions,certainly,whenoneissimplylistening,speaking,readingorwritingtotheexclusionoftheotherskills:
examplesmightbewatchingasoapoperaontelevision,readinganovel,givingalecture,orwritingalettertoafriend.Buttherearemanyotherexampleswhereanumberofskillsareinterwovenintoacomplexlanguageactivity.Iwouldlikeusthereforetogetawayfromthenotionthatgenerallanguageprogrammescanbeconstructedfromseparatecomponentsconcentratingonseparatemacroskills.Wherepossibletheseskillsshouldbeintegrated,thoughthisisnottosaythattherecannotbespecialisedcomponentsfocusingononeortwooftheskillstotheexclusionofothers.
Nevertheless,forconvenienceourstartingpointinthischapteristhediscretemacroskillsandwhatresearchhasshownusabouteachoftheminturn.Wewillconsiderlaterinthechaptersuchissuesofsyllabusdesignaswhenforclassroompurposesweintegrateskillsandwhenwedealwiththemseparately,andhowwerelatethemtotheaimsofthelearnerandthegoalsoftheprogramme.
2.2Thenatureoflisteningcomprehension
Intheirbookonlistening,AndersonandLynch(1988)distinguishbetweenreciprocallisteningandnon-reciprocallistening.Reciprocallisteningreferstothoselisteningtaskswherethereistheopportunityforthelistenertointeractwiththespeaker,andtonegotiatethecontentoftheinteraction.Non-reciprocallisteningreferstotaskssuchaslisteningtotheradiooraformallecturewherethetransferofinformationisinonedirectiononly-fromthespeakertothelistener.AndersonandLynchunderlinethecomplexityoflisteningcomprehensionbypointingoutthatthelistenermustsimultaneouslyintegratethefollowingskills:
-identifyspokensignalsfromthemidstofsurroundingsounds;
-segmentthestreamofspeechintowords;
-graspthesyntaxoftheutterance(s);
-(ininteractivelistening)formulateanappropriateresponse.
Theypointoutthatinadditiontotheselinguisticskills,thelistenermustalsocommandarangeofnon-linguisticknowledgeandskills.Theseincludehavinganappropriatepurposeforlistening;havingappropriatesocialandculturalknowledgeandskills;havingtheappropriatebackgroundknowledge.Theystresstheactivenatureoflistening,anddemonstratetheinadequatenatureofthe'listenerastape-recorder'viewoflisteningcomprehension.Wedonotsimplytakelanguageinlikeatape-recorder,butinterpretwhatwehearaccordingtoourpurposeinlisteningandourbackgroundknowledge.Wethenstorethemeaning(s)ofthemessageratherthantheformsinwhichtheseareencoded.Theactualgrammaticalstructuresthemselvesareoftenrapidlylost.Conversely,beingabletoremembertheactualwordsofaspokenmessagedoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthemessageitselfhasbeencomprehended.
AndersonandLynchrecordananecdotewhichillustratestheimportanceofbackgroundknowledge.Anoldwoman,passingoneoftheauthorsinthestreet,said'That'stheuniversity.It'sgoingtoraintomorrow.'Initially,thelistenerwasunabletointerprettheutterance.Itwasonlyafterthespeakerrepeatedherself,anddrewthelistener'sattentiontoabellringinginthedistance,thathewasabletogettothemeaningsbehindthewords.Indoingso,heneededtodrawonthefollowinginformation:
generalfactualinformation:
1.soundismoreaudibledownwindthanupwind
2.winddirectionmayaffectweatherconditions
localfactualknowledge:
3.theUniversityofGlasgowhasaclocktowerwithabell
socio-culturalknowledge:
4.strangersinBritainoccasionallyrefertotheweatherto'oilthewheels'ofsociallife.
5.apolitecommentfromastrangerusuallyrequiresaresponse
knowledgeofcontext:
6.theconversationtookplaceabouthalf-a-milefromtheUniversityofGlasgow
7.theclocktowerbellwasjuststrikingthehour
(AndersonandLynch1988:
12-13)
Bydrawingonthesevarioussourcesofknowledge,thelistenerwasabletoconcludethattheoldwomanwasdrawinghisattentiontothefactthatthewindwasblowingfromadirectionwhichbroughtwithitthethreatofrain.Thechangeinthewinddirectionwassignalledbythefactthattheuniversityclocktowerwasaudible.Thewomanwas,infact,makingasociallyacceptablecommenttoastranger,i.e.talkingabouttheweather,althoughshechosearatheridiosyncraticwayofdoingit.
Inhisanalysisoflisteningcomprehension,Richards(1987a)distinguishesbetweenconversationallistening(listeningtocasualspeech)andacademiclistening(listeningtolecturesandotheracademicpresentations).(By'academic'listeningRichardsmeanslisteningtolecturesinanacademiccontext,notanEnglishlanguagelearningcontext.)
Conversationallisteninginvolvestheabilityto:
-retainchunksoflanguageofdifferentlengthsforshortperiods
-discriminateamongthedistinctivesoundsofthetargetlanguage
-recognisethestresspatternsofwords
-recognisetherhythmicstructureofEnglish
-recognisethefunctionsofstressandintonationtosignaltheinformationstructureofutterances
-identifywordsinstressedandunstressedpositions-recognisereducedformsofwords
-distinguishwordboundaries
-recognisetypicalwordorderpatternsinthetargetlanguage
-recognisevocabularyusedincoreconversationaltopics
-detectkeywords(i.e.thosewhichidentifytopicsandpropositions)
-guessthemeaningsofwordsfromthecontextsinwhichtheyoccur
-recognisegrammaticalwordclasses(partsofspeech)
-recognisemajorsyntacticpatternsanddevices
-recognisecohesivedevicesinspokendiscourse
-recogniseellipticalformsofgrammaticalunitsandsentences-detectsentenceconstituents.
Academiclisteninginvolvestheabilityto:
-identifypurposeandscopeoflecture
-identifytopicoflectureandfollowtopicdevelopment
-identifyrelationshipsamongunitswithindiscourse(forexamplemajoridea,generalisations,hypotheses,supportingideas,examples)
-identifyroleofdiscoursemarkersinsignallingstructureoflecture(forexampleconjunctions,adverbs,gambits,routines)
-inferrelationships(forexamplecause,effect,conclusion)
-recognisekeylexicalitemsrelatingtosubject/topic
-deducemeaningsofwordsfromcontext
-recognisemarkersofcohesion
-recognisefunctionofintonationtosignalinformationstructure(forexamplepitch,volume,pace,key)
-detectattitudeofspeakertowardsubjectmatter.
Studytheseanddecidewhicharelikelytobecarriedoutbythelearnerintheworldoutsidethelanguageclassroom,whichareonlylikelytooccurintheclassroom,andwhichmightoccurbothinsideandoutsidethelanguageclassroom.
Ratherthanseeingtheselistsasrelatingtoconversationalandacademiclisteningrespectively,IwouldprefertosuggestthatthefirstlistcontainsasetofenablingmicroskillswhichlearnersmightemployinanylisteningtaskregardlessofwhetheritisaconversationalOracademictask.Thesecondlistcontainswhatmightbecalledrhetoricalordiscoursecom-prehensionskills.Onceagain,thesemaybeneededforbothconver-sationalandacademiclistening.
Richardsalsoclassifieslisteningtasksaccordingtowhethertheyrequirethelearnertoengagein'bottom-up'or'top-down'processing.Bottom-upprocessesworkontheincomingmessageitself,decodingsounds,words,clausesandsentences.Bottom-upprocessesincludethefollowing
-scanningtheinputtoidentifyfamiliarlexicalitems;
-segmentingthestreamofspeechintoconstituents,forexampleinordertorecognisethat'abookofmine'consistsoffourwords;
-usingphonologicalcuestoidentifytheinformationfocusinanutterance;
-usinggrammaticalcuestoorganisetheinputintoconstituents,forexample,inordertorecognisethatin'thebookwhichIlentyou'[thebook]and[whichIlentyou]aremajorconstituents,ratherthan[thebookwhichI]and[lentyou].
Top-downprocessesusebackgroundknowledgetoassistincom-prehendingthemessage.(Wehavealreadyseen,throughtheexampleprovidedbyAndersonandLynch,theimportanceoftop-downprocessesinlisteningcomprehension.)Richardsprovidesthefollowingexamples:
-assigninganinteractiontopartofaparticularevent,suchasstorytelling,joking,praying,complaining;-assigningplaces,personsorthingstocategories;
-inferringcauseandeffectrelationships;
-anticipatingoutcomes;
-inferringthetopicofadiscourse;
-inferringthesequencebetweenevents;
-inferringmissingde
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