语言学笔记Word格式.doc
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语言学笔记Word格式.doc
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6)Pragmatics:
thestudyofmeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse
Interdisciplinarybranches:
1)Sociolinguistics
2)Psycholinguistics
3)Appliedlinguistics
lImportantdistinctions
Prescriptiveanddescriptive:
1)Descriptive:
Describeandanalyzethelanguagethatpeopleactuallyuse
2)Prescriptive:
Laydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinusinglanguage
3)Modernlanguageismostlydescriptive.Modernlanguage,whichisscientificandobjective,describeslanguagepeopleactuallyuse,beitcorrectornot.
Synchronicanddiachronic
1)Synchronic:
describelanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory,alwaysinitscurrentexistence.
2)Diachronic:
thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtime;
itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.
3)Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicapproachenjoyspriority.
Speechandwriting
Speechispriortowritinginlinguistics,foritismorenaturalandrevealsmoretruefeatureoflanguage.
Langueandparole
1)Langue:
abstractsystemsharedbyallmembersoflanguagecommunity;
itisthesetofconventionsandrulesthatlanguageusershaveabideby
2)Parole:
Concreteuseoflanguage.
3)Saussure:
1)paroleissimplyamassoflinguisticlanguagefacts;
2)linguistshouldabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguage
CompetenceandPerformance-AmericanlinguistChomsky
1)Competence:
knowledgeofrulesoflanguage
2)Performance:
therealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication
3)Theimperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactors.
Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics
1)Linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.
2)Modernlinguisticsregardspokenlanguageasprimary.
3)ModernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoLatin-basedframework.
Whatislanguage?
lDefinitionoflanguage
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
1)Languageisasystem,whichmeanselementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.
2)Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.
3)Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguageissound.
4)Languageishuman-specific.
lDesignfeature
1)Arbitrariness:
logicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.Whilesomewordsaremotivated:
thefirstareonomatopoeicwords,suchasrumble,crash,bang;
thesecondarecompoundwords,e.g.photocopy.Thiskindofwordsonlymakeupsmallpercentageofvocabulary.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophistica-tionoflanguageandmakeitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.
2)Productivity:
languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.
3)Duality:
basiclevel:
astructureofsounds
Higherlevel:
soundsoflanguagecanberearrangedintomorphemesandwords
4)Displacement:
不受时空限制的
5)Culturaltransmission:
humanhavetobelearnedandtaughtbeacquirelanguage.
lFunctionsoflanguage
Descriptivefunction:
conveyfactualinformation
Expressivefunction:
suppliesinformation
Socialfunction:
maintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople
StructurallinguistRomanJakobson
Addresser---emotive:
addresserexpresshisattitudetowardsthetopicorsituation
Addressee---conative:
theaddresseraimstoinfluenceaddressee’saction
Context---referential:
addresserconveysamessageorinformation
Message---poetic:
uselanguagetodisplaythebeautyoflanguage
Contact---phaticcommunication:
ittriestoestablishormaintaininterpersonalrelations
Code---metalinguistic:
makeclearthemeaningoflanguageitself
Inearly1970BritishlinguistM.A.K.Halliday
7functioninchildren.
3inadults:
Ideationalfunction:
organizeone’sexperience,attitude,evaluation,feeling,andemotions
Interpersonalfunction:
establishandmaintaininterpersonalrelations
Textualfunction:
organizewrittenorspokenEnglishinsuchamannerthattheyarecoherentwithinthemselvesandfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused
Chapter2 Phonology
Thephonicmediumoflanguage
Limitedrangeofsoundsconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage.
Theindividualsoundswithintherangearethespeechsounds.
Phonetics
lWhatisphonetics?
Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;
itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccursintheworld’slanguages.
Articulatoryphonetics:
studiesthesoundsformspeaker’spointof
View,i.e.howthespeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds
Auditoryphonetics:
studiesfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer
Acousticphonetics:
thewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundswaves.
Chapter 4Syntax
Whatisit?
lSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthegoverntheformationofsentences.
Wordscategories
lIntraditionalgrammar,thereare8categories(calledpartsofspeech).Non-traditionalcategoriesasdeterminer(Det),degreewords(Deg),andqualifier(Qua).
lTwodivision
Majorlexicalcategories:
theheadsaroundwhichphasesarebuilt.Noun,verb,adjective,preposition.
Minorlexicalcategories:
determiner限定词,degreewords,qualifier限定语,auxiliary,conjunction.
lCriteria:
Meaning:
1)nounsoftendesignateitsentity;
verbsoftendesignateaction,sensation,andstates.2)thepropertyorattributeofanouncanbeelaboratedbyadjectives,thoseofverbs,adverbs.
Deficiencies:
1)somewordsdonothaveentitysuchasdilemma,friendship.
2)somewordsbelongtomorethanonecategories
3)wordswithsameorsimilarmeaningbelongstodifferentcategories,e.g.beawareofandknow
Inflection:
1)nounà
-sor–esindicatingplural
2)adjectivesà
-eror–estindicatingcomparativedegreeandsuperlativedegree
3)verbà
-ingand–edindicatingprogressiveandpasttense
Deficiency:
somewordsdonottakeinflections
Distribution:
itisreliable,whichindicateswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithcertainwords.
Nounco-appearwithdeterminer,e.g.agirl,thepen
Verbswithauxiliary,e.g.shouldopen
Adjectiveswithdegreewords,e.g.verycool
Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructure
lXPrule
XPà
Specifier——head——complement
NPà
(Det) N (PP)…
VPà
(Qual) V (NP)…
APà
(Deg) A (PP)…
PPà
(Deg) P (NP)…
lCoordinationrule
Nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriespriortotheconjunction.
Acategoryatanylevel(headorXP)canbecoordinated.
Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.
Thecategorytypeofcoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeofelementsbeingconjoined.
Structure:
Xà
X,X,X…ConX
Phraseelements:
lSpecifiers
Role:
1)semantically,makemoreprecisethemeaningofhead;
2)syntactically,markthephraseboundary.
Differenttermofspecifiersbeforedifferentheads.
Specifiers
Heads
Examples
Determiners
N
Thebook,nowater,thisbook
Qualifiers
V
Always,neverfail
Degreewords
A
Lessinteresting,quitegood,verysensitive
P
Almostin,quiteabove
lComplements
Provideinformationandlocation,attachedtorightofthehead
Monotransitive:
openthedoor
Ditransitive:
sendmethemail
Comlextransitiveverbs:
putitonthewall
Complementclause
Miss Herbert believes that she will win.
Matrixclause complementizer complementclause
CPcomplement
Items
Examples
Adj.
Afraid,certain,aware
Iamafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme.
Nouns
Fact,claim,belief
Shecan’tbelievethefactthatshewouldfailintheexam.
Prepositions
Over,about
Theyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.
lModifiers
Tomodifiernounsà
adj.phrases
Tomodifierverbsà
adv.Phrasesandprepositionalphrases
Positionofmodifiers
Modifiers
Positions
AP
PP
AdvP
Precedesthehead
Followthehead
Precedesorfollow
Averycarefulgirl
Openwithcare
Readcarefully;
carefullyread
Sentences(theSrule)
Inflp=(s)
NPInlfVP
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