Monolingual lessons without the help of the mother tongue are extrinsically possibleWord格式.docx
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Monolingual lessons without the help of the mother tongue are extrinsically possibleWord格式.docx
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Translation/transferisanaturalphenomenonandaninevitablepartofsecondlanguageacquisition...,regardlessofwhetherornottheteacheroffersor'
permits'
translation."
(Harbord,1992:
351).EversincethedaysofSweetandPalmer,theirrepressibilityofassociationsintheMThasbeenregularlyconfirmedasasad,butinevitable,factoflifebyteachersobservingintheirownclassrooms.
Thisattitude,however,hasafalseringtoit:
"
YoucanbanishtheMTfromtheclassroom,butyoucannotbanishitfromthepupils'
heads."
Itsoundsasifwewereinfactsaying:
Sorry,butwecan'
tdoanythingaboutit,solet'
sacceptit"
.However,teachersshoulddoeverythingtoworkwiththisnaturaltendencyratherthanagainstit-notbecauseitisinevitable,butbecauseitisavitalstageforthebeginner:
withoutittherewouldbeblankincomprehension.SuccessfullearnerscapitaliseonthevastamountoflinguisticskillsandworldknowledgetheyhaveaccumulatedviatheMT.Everyteacherquitenaturallyassumesthathisorherpupilsalreadyknowwhatwordssuchasbirthdayandpostmanmeanwithinagivenculturebeforetheysetaboutexplainingthewordsanniversaireorfacteur.Considerhowoftenachildwillhavecelebratedbirthdays,orseenapostman.Evenifwedealwithculturesthatrestricttheconceptofbirthdaytothedayofone'
sbirth,theMTwordwouldstillbeasuitablestartingpointforcomprehension.Ratherthanreconceptualisetheworld,weneedtoextendourconcepts,withanynecessaryculturaladjustmentorrefinement.Forthebeginner,becomingawareofmeaningsautomaticallyinvolvesconnectingthemwiththeMT-untiltheFLhasestablishedanever-morecomplexnetworkforitself.
IhaveborrowedthephraseLanguageAcquisitionSupportSystem(LASS)fromBruner(1983)whousesitalongwithenvironmental"
scaffolding"
inthecontextofL1acquisition.InFLlearning,theLASSisprovidedbytheMTwithlearnersengagingintheirownself-scaffolding.Ourjobistoassisttheminthistaskinsteadofignoringoreventryingtosuppresswhatgoesoninthepupils'
minds.
MTaidsmakeiteasiertoconductwholelessonsintheforeignlanguage.Pupilsgainconfidenceand,paradoxically,becomelessdependentontheirMT.
Thispointaddressesacentralmisunderstandingwhichprobablyexplainswhyacentury-olderrorisonlynowbeingcorrected."
Givethedevilaninchandhe'
lltakeamile"
seemstobetheacceptedwisdom.Butwhenusedproperly,theMTstealsverylittletimeawayfromtheFL,and,infact,helpstoestablishitasthegeneralmeansofcommunicationintheclassroom.Thelessonandtheorganisationofthelesson,stilltakeplaceintheforeignlanguage.Thisfulfilsanecessaryandcorrectrequirementofthedirectmethod.Paradoxically,a'
foreignlanguagefriendly'
atmosphereisbestachievedthroughthespecific,albeitdiscreteuseofthemothertongue.Thisishowweproceed:
Teacher:
"
You'
veskippedaline.DuhasteineZeileü
bersprungen.You'
veskippedaline."
Imeanthelastwordbutone."
DasvorletzteWort.Thelastwordbutone."
Theteacher,onthespot,insertsatranslationbetweenrepetitionsofanunknownphrase,almostasanaside,spokeninadifferentvoiceorwithaslightbreakintheflowofspeechtomarkitasan"
intruder"
("
sandwich-technique"
).Theteachercouldevenwritetheexpressionupontheblackboard,inanareaspecificallysetasideforthispurpose,gettingpupilstocopyitdownintoaseparateexercisebook,perhaps,attheendofthelesson,soasnottointerrupttheongoingbusiness.Thisthree-stepprocedurecansolvemanyproblems,butneedsacounterpartwhenpupilsinitiateutterancesandinsertaMTphrase.Theseshouldnotbeforbiddenbutmustbeseizeduponbytheteacher:
Pupil:
Ichwollt'
dasauchsagen."
Oh,Isee.InEnglishitis:
Iwasgoingtosaythesame"
.Tryit,please."
MTexpressionsthatcomefromthepupilsspontaneouslyalsoneedtobewrittenupandcollected.OnlythencantheteacherinsistontheuseoftheFLphrases,andindeedmustnowdoso-henceforththesameexpressionsintheMTareproscribed.Ifwekeepsomeself-discipline,sowillourpupils,andweneednotfearabreakinthedam.Thetimely,well-directeduseoftheMTwillnotendtheday-to-day,toughbattlethatteachersendureintryingtoestablishanFLatmosphereamongtheirpupils.Itwill,however,temperitconsiderably.
Dodson(1967/1972)inventedthesandwich-procedureforteachingdialogues.Theteacherconveysthemeaningofthelinesbygivingutteranceequivalents.Here'
salinefromadialogueItaughttoGermanpupils:
Wouldyouhavemarkeditwrong?
Hä
ttenSie'
sdennangestrichen?
Throughthe"
sandwiching"
ofthetranslationbetweentherepeatedlinesofthetext,thestudentsareledtorepeatthelinedirectlyaftertheFLstimulus.Thus,thereisnointerferencefromthetranslation,whichmustbeasidiomaticandsuitedtothecontextaspossible,sothateverypupilcatchesonstraightaway.Theyknowtheexactimpactoftheutterancebecauseoftheaccompanyingintonation,voicequality,facialexpressionsandgestures,includingtheeffectoftypicalGermanmodalparticlessuchas"
denn"
"
doch"
or"
eigentlich"
thesaltandpepperofGermanspeech.Thistypeofmeaning-conveyanceisaverylongwayawayfrombothmonolingualdefinitionsorparaphrasesandbilingualword-lists,becauseitincludesthepragmaticaspectsofmeaningandcanrenderemotionalovertones.PupilswillbelesscoyaboutspeakingtheFL.Theyunderstandsoclearlythattheytrustthemselvestousetheexpressiondirectlyandtovaryitaccordingtotheirownneeds.Andthatispreciselythekeyfactorforsuccessinlearning:
whatthelearnersdowithwhattheyhavecorrectlycomprehended.Themoretimeandeffortthatisinvestedatthisstage,thelesschancetheMThastocauseinterferenceorobstructthelearningprocess.Onthecontrary,thenativelanguagelaunches,asitwere,thepupils'
canoesoutintotheforeign-languagecurrent,whichthengrabsholdofthemandcarriesthemsafelydownstream.
WeareremindedofHaroldPalmer'
sdistinctionbetweenaquick,initialgraspofmeaningandthesubsequentacquisitionoffluencyinusingthenewlanguageitems,thelatterrequiringconsiderabletimeandeffort.'
Thisimportantdistinctionwasforgottenwhenthependulumswunginthe1960stoaudio-visualmethods...Insecureteachers,anxioustobeinthefashion,weretobeseengoingthrougheverykindofcontortion...tryingtogetprecisemeaningsacrosstotheirclasswithoutlettingslipawordofEnglish.'
(Hawkins,1981:
133).2
MTaidscanpromotemoreauthentic,message-orientedcommunicationthanmightbefoundinlessonswheretheyareavoided.
QuicktranslationsintheMToftenhelpwithoutinterruptingtheflowofaconversationorevenbeingnoticed.AsisevidencedinmanylessontranscriptsIhavecollected,pupilsaremorelikelytorespondspontaneouslyandtotakerisks,voicingtheirpersonalopinions,andrelatingmoreabouttheirprivatelives;
atthesametime,teacherscanestablishfriendlyrelationswithpupilsandbetterexplorebothcurrentandunexpectedthemes-simplybecauseshortaidsorpromptsinthemothertonguecanhelpkeepaforeign-languageconversationgoingandopenaspaceforlearners.Thiskindofspontaneityandpersonalinvolvementfulfilsthefundamentalrequirementofthemoderncommunicativeapproach.Thenon-useoftheMT,however,seriouslyconstrainswhatcanbesaidandread.MTaidswillsavepupilsfromafeelingoffrustrationwhichwilleventuallyleadthemtoavoidalltopicsofpersonalinterest.
Thesimpletruthisthatthecallfor"
real"
communicationandthebanontheMTareconflictingdemands.Apartfromactivityinstructions,whichinthemselvescanbequitecomplex,thereareinnumerableoccasionsinthelifeofaclassforpersonalremarkstoapupil,forlightbantercreatingwarmthandacceptance.Therearealsomanyunforeseenincidentsthatoughttobedealtwithimmediately.Thelanguagerequiredtosolvetheseproblemsisoftenfarbeyondthelanguagetaughtcurrentlyinthecoursebook.Teachershavethreeoptions:
(1)usetheMT;
(2)ignorethewholebusiness,suppressingremarksorcommentstheywouldnormallymake;
(3)simplifyasbesttheycanandusethesandwich-technique.AlltheseoptionshaveaplaceintheFLclassroom.Itisonlythethirdoption,however,thatcanbreathecommunicativelifeintoaclassroomand,atthesametime,helpsustainaFLatmospherethroughout.
AGermanteachingassistantinanEnglishschoolwasatfirstsurprisedtofindthatallherpupils'
parentsheldoneofthreejobsuntilsherealisedtheteacherwantedthepupilstoconcentrateonwell-memorizedwordsanddidnotencouragepupilstoventurebeyondthetextbook.Theerroriswidespreadandisreportedagainandagainbymystudents:
Whenwehadtowritesomethingabou
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