20Income Inequality and Poverty.docx
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20Income Inequality and Poverty.docx
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20IncomeInequalityandPoverty
INCOMEINEQUALITYANDPOVERTY
“Theonlydifferencebetweentherichandotherpeople,”MaryColumoncesaidtoErnestHemingway,“isthattherichhavemoremoney.”Maybeso.Butthisclaimleavesmanyquestionsunanswered.Thegapbetweenrichandpoorisafascinat-ingandimportanttopicofstudy—forthecomfortablerich,forthestrugglingpoor,andfortheaspiringandworriedmiddleclass.
Fromtheprevioustwochaptersyoushouldhavesomeunderstandingaboutwhydifferentpeoplehavedifferentincomes.Aperson’searningsdependonthesupplyanddemandforthatperson’slabor,whichinturndependonnaturalabil-ity,humancapital,compensatingdifferentials,discrimination,andsoon.Becauselaborearningsmakeupaboutthree-fourthsofthetotalincomeintheU.S.econ-omy,thefactorsthatdeterminewagesarealsolargelyresponsiblefordetermininghowtheeconomy’stotalincomeisdistributedamongthevariousmembersofso-ciety.Inotherwords,theydeterminewhoisrichandwhoispoor.
INTHISCHAPTERYOUWILL...
Examinethedegreeofeconomic
inequalityinoursociety
Considersome
problemsthatarisewhenmeasuring
economicinequality
Seehowpoliticalphilosophersviewthegovernment’s
rolein
redistributingincome
Considerthe
variouspoliciesaimedathelpingpoorfamilies
escapepoverty
437
Inthischapterwediscussthedistributionofincome.Asweshallsee,thistopicraisessomefundamentalquestionsabouttheroleofeconomicpolicy.OneoftheTenPrinciplesofEconomicsinChapter1isthatgovernmentscansometimesim-provemarketoutcomes.Thispossibilityisparticularlyimportantwhenconsider-ingthedistributionofincome.Theinvisiblehandofthemarketplaceactstoallocateresourcesefficiently,butitdoesnotnecessarilyensurethatresourcesareallocatedfairly.Asaresult,manyeconomists—thoughnotall—believethatthegovernmentshouldredistributeincometoachievegreaterequality.Indoingso,however,thegovernmentrunsintoanotheroftheTenPrinciplesofEconomics:
Peo-plefacetradeoffs.Whenthegovernmentenactspoliciestomakethedistributionofincomemoreequitable,itdistortsincentives,altersbehavior,andmakestheal-locationofresourceslessefficient.
Ourdiscussionofthedistributionofincomeproceedsinthreesteps.First,weassesshowmuchinequalitythereisinoursociety.Second,weconsidersomedif-ferentviewsaboutwhatrolethegovernmentshouldplayinalteringthedistribu-tionofincome.Third,wediscussvariouspublicpoliciesaimedathelpingsociety’spoorestmembers.
THEMEASUREMENTOFINEQUALITY
Webeginourstudyofthedistributionofincomebyaddressingfourquestionsofmeasurement:
◆Howmuchinequalityisthereinoursociety?
◆Howmanypeopleliveinpoverty?
“AsfarasI’mconcerned,theycandowhattheywantwiththeminimumwage,justaslongastheykeeptheirhandsoffthemaximumwage.”
◆Whatproblemsariseinmeasuringtheamountofinequality?
◆Howoftendopeoplemoveamongincomeclasses?
Thesemeasurementquestionsarethenaturalstartingpointfromwhichtodiscusspublicpoliciesaimedatchangingthedistributionofincome.
U.S.INCOMEINEQUALITY
Therearevariouswaystodescribethedistributionofincomeintheeconomy.Table20-1presentsaparticularlysimpleway.Itshowsthepercentageoffamiliesthatfallintoeachofsevenincomecategories.Youcanusethistabletofindwhereyourfamilyliesintheincomedistribution.
Forexaminingdifferencesintheincomedistributionovertimeoracrosscoun-tries,economistsfinditmoreusefultopresenttheincomedataasinTable20-2.Toseehowtointerpretthistable,considerthefollowingthoughtexperiment.Imag-inethatyoulinedupallthefamiliesintheeconomyaccordingtotheirannualin-come.Thenyoudividedthefamiliesintofiveequalgroups:
thebottomfifth,thesecondfifth,themiddlefifth,thefourthfifth,andthetopfifth.Nextyoucomputedtheshareoftotalincomethateachgroupoffamiliesreceived.Inthisway,youcouldproducethenumbersinTable20-2.
Thesenumbersgiveusawayofgauginghowtheeconomy’stotalincomeisdis-tributed.Ifincomewereequallydistributedacrossallfamilies,eachone-fifthoffam-ilieswouldreceiveone-fifth(20percent)ofincome.Ifallincomewereconcentratedamongjustafewfamilies,thetopfifthwouldreceive100percent,andtheotherfifthswouldreceive0percent.Theactualeconomy,ofcourse,isbetweenthesetwoextremes.Thetableshowsthatin1998thebottomfifthofallfamiliesreceived4.2percentofallincome,andthetopfifthofallfamiliesreceived47.3percentofallin-come.Inotherwords,eventhoughthetopandbottomfifthsincludethesamenum-beroffamilies,thetopfifthhasabouttentimesasmuchincomeasthebottomfifth.
ThelastcolumninTable20-2showstheshareoftotalincomereceivedbytheveryrichestfamilies.In1998,thetop5percentoffamiliesreceived20.7percentoftotalincome.Thus,thetotalincomeoftherichest5percentoffamilieswasgreaterthanthetotalincomeofthepoorest40percent.
Table20-2alsoshowsthedistributionofincomeinvariousyearsbeginningin
1935.Atfirstglance,thedistributionofincomeappearstohavebeenremarkably
stableovertime.Throughoutthepastseveraldecades,thebottomfifthoffamilies
Lessthan$15,000
11.7%
THEDISTRIBUTIONOFINCOMEIN
THEUNITEDSTATES:
1998
$15,000-$24,999
12.3
$25,000-$34,999
12.7
$35,000-$49,999
16.8
$50,000-$74,999
21.5
$75,000-$99,999
11.7
$100,000andover
13.3
Source:
U.S.BureauoftheCensus.
ANNUALFAMILYINCOMEPERCENTOFFAMILIES
Table20-1
Table20-2
INCOMEINEQUALITYINTHE
YEAR
BOTTOM
FIFTH
SECOND
FIFTH
MIDDLE
FIFTH
FOURTH
FIFTH
TOP
FIFTH
TOP
5PERCENT
UNITEDSTATES.Thistable
showsthepercentoftotalbefore-
1998
4.2%
9.9%
15.7%
23.0%
47.3%
20.7%
taxincomereceivedbyfamilies
1990
4.6
10.8
16.6
23.8
44.3
17.4
ineachfifthoftheincome
1980
5.2
11.5
17.5
24.3
41.5
15.3
distributionandbythose
1970
5.5
12.2
17.6
23.8
40.9
15.6
familiesinthetop5percent.
1960
4.8
12.2
17.8
24.0
41.3
15.9
1950
4.5
12.0
17.4
23.4
42.7
17.3
1935
4.1
9.2
14.1
20.9
51.7
26.5
Source:
U.S.BureauoftheCensus.
hasreceivedabout4to5percentofincome,whilethetopfifthhasreceivedabout
40to50percentofincome.Closerinspectionofthetablerevealssometrendsinthe
degreeofinequality.From1935to1970,thedistributiongraduallybecamemore
equal.Theshareofthebottomfifthrosefrom4.1to5.5percent,andtheshareof
thetopfifthfellfrom51.7percentto40.9percent.Inmorerecentyears,thistrend
hasreverseditself.From1970to1998,theshareofthebottomfifthfellfrom5.5
percentto4.2percent,andtheshareofthetopfifthrosefrom40.9to47.3percent.
InChapter19wediscussedsomeofthereasonsforthisrecentincreaseinin-
equality.Increasesininternationaltradewithlow-wagecountriesandchangesin
technologyhavetendedtoreducethedemandforunskilledlaborandraisethede-
mandforskilledlabor.Asaresult,thewagesofunskilledworkershavefallenrel-
ativetothewagesofskilledworkers,andthischangeinrelativewageshas
increasedinequalityinfamilyincomes.
CASESTUDYTHEWOMEN’SMOVEMENTANDTHEINCOMEDISTRIBUTION
Overthepastseveraldecades,therehasbeenadramaticchangeinwomen’sroleintheeconomy.Thepercentageofwomenwhoholdjobshasrisenfromabout32percentinthe1950stoabout54percentinthe1990s.Asfull-timehomemakershavebecomelesscommon,awoman’searningshavebecomeamoreimportantdeterminantofthetotalincomeofatypicalfamily.
Althoughthewomen’smovementhasledtomoreequalitybetweenmenandwomeninaccesstoeducationandjobs,ithasalsoledtolessequalityinfam-ilyincomes.Thereasonisthattheriseinwomen’slabor-forceparticipationhasnotbeenthesameacrossallincomegroups.Inparticular,thewomen’smove-menthashaditsgreatestimpactonwomenfromhigh-incomehouseholds.Womenfromlow-incomehouseholdshavelonghadhighratesofparticipationinthelaborforce,eveninthe1950s,andtheirbehaviorhaschangedmuchless.
Inessence,thewomen’smovementhaschangedthebehaviorofthewivesofhigh-incomemen.Inthe1950s,amaleexecutiveorphysicianwaslikelytomarryawomanwhowouldstayathomeandraisethechildren.Today,thewifeofamaleexecutiveorphysicianismorelikelytobeanexecutiveorphysicianherself.Theresultisthatrichhouseholdshavebecomeevenricher,apatternthatraisesinequalityinfamilyincomes.
Asthisexampleshows,therearesocialaswellaseconomicdeterminantsofthedistributionofincome.Moreover,thesimplisticviewthat“incomeinequal-ityisbad”canbemisleading.Increasingtheopportunitiesavailabletowomenwassurelyagoodchangeforsociety,evenifoneeffectwasgreaterinequalityinfamilyincomes.Whenevaluatinganychangeinthedistributionofincome,pol-icymakersmustlookatthereasonsforthatchangebeforedecidingwhetheritpresentsaproblemforsociety.
EQUALITYFORWOMENHASMEANTLESSEQUALITYFORFAMILYINCOMES.
CASESTUDYINCOMEINEQUALITYAROUNDTHEWORLD
HowdoestheamountofincomeinequalityintheUnitedStatescomparetothatinothercountries?
Thisquestionisinteresting,butansweringitisproblematic.Formanycountries,dataare
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