A+Review+of+Culture+in+Information+Systems+Research.docx
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A+Review+of+Culture+in+Information+Systems+Research.docx
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A+Review+of+Culture+in+Information+Systems+Research
AReviewofCultureinInformationSystemsResearch:
TowardsaTheoryofIT-CultureConflict
DorothyE.LeidnerandTimothyKayworth
BaylorUniversity
POBox98005
Waco,TX76798-8005
Dorothy_Leidner@baylor.edu
Timothy_Kayworth@baylor.edu
254-710-2258
July,2005
Keywords:
NationalCulture,OrganizationalCulture,InformationSystems,ITValues
Acknowledgements:
theauthorsthanktheSeniorEditorandthreeanonymousreviewersfortheirthoughtfulreadingsofthemanuscriptandguidancethroughthereviewprocess.
Abstract
Anunderstandingofcultureisimportanttothestudyofinformationtechnologiesinthatcultureatvariouslevels,includingnational,organizational,andgroup,caninfluencethesuccessfulimplementationanduseofIT.Culturealsoplaysaroleinmanagerialprocessesthatmaydirectly,orindirectly,influenceIT.Cultureisachallengingvariabletoresearch,inpartbecauseofthemultipledivergentdefinitionsandmeasuresofculture.Notwithstanding,awidebodyofliteraturehasemergedthatshedslightontherelationshipofITandculture.ThispapersetsouttoprovideareviewofthisliteratureinordertolendinsightsintoourunderstandingofthelinkagesbetweenITandculture.Webeginbyconceptualizingcultureandlayingthegroundworkforavalues-basedapproachtotheexaminationofITandculture.Usingthisapproach,wethenprovideacomprehensivereviewoftheorganizationalandcross-culturalITliteraturethatconceptuallylinksthesetwotraditionallyseparatestreamsofresearch.Fromouranalysis,wedevelopsixthemesofIT-cultureresearchemphasizingculture’simpactonIT,IT’simpactonculture,andITculture.Buildinguponthesethemes,wethendevelopatheoryofIT,values,andconflict.Baseduponthetheory,wedeveloppropositionsconcerningthreetypesofculturalconflictandtheresultsoftheseconflicts.Ultimately,thetheorysuggeststhatthereconciliationoftheseconflictsresultsinareorientationofvalues.Weconcludewiththeparticularresearchchallengesposedinthislineofinquiry.
Introduction
Cultureisoftenpartiallyblamedwhenorganizationsexperiencefailures.Forexample,theColumbiaandChallengerdisastersexperiencedbyNASAwereinpartattributedtoaculturethatvaluedconformitytorulesresultingintheoverlookingofpotentialrisks(Vaughan,1996and2003).Similarly,medicalerrorsareresponsiblefor11%ofalldeathsinAustralia(Mercola,2001)andmorepatientdeathsthanautomobileaccidentsorHIVintheUnitedStates(Kohn,Corrigan,andDonaldson,2000),andyetthecultureofmedicalprofessionalsencouragesthemtorefrainfromexposingmistakes(Kohn,Corrigan,andDonaldson,2000).Asaresult,littlelearningoccursfrommistakesandthesamemistakesarerepeatedacrossinstitutions.ITisoftenimplicatedinfailingsofculture.InthecaseofNASA,reportshavesuggestedthatanover-relianceonsimplifiedPowerPointpresentationsofcomplexengineeringmighthavecontributedtotheinabilitytopinpointhiddenrisks(Tufte,2003).Inthecaseofthehealthcareprofession,ITcouldpossiblyhelpreducemedicalerrors,andyettheveryintroductionofITisoftenmetwithculturalresistance(Coombs,Knights,andWillmott,1992).Nationalculturehasalsobeenimplicatedinorganizationalfailures.AviancaAirlineshastwiceexperiencedcrashesthatweresubsequentlyblamedinpartonthenationalcultureofthecrew,anationalcultureinwhichsubordinateswereuncomfortableexpressingdisagreementwithsuperiorsorconveyingbadnews(Helmreich,1994).Inonecase,acrashoccurredinMadridamidwarningsfromtheGroundProximityWarningSystembutthecaptaincontinuedtomaintainbeliefinhisownsituationalperceptionandtheco-pilotquietlyaskedquestionshintingathisowndisagreementwiththecaptainwhileacquiescingtothecaptain'sinterpretation(Helmreich,1994).Inanothercrash,anAviancaflightfromColumbiatoNewYorkcrasheduponlandingaftercirclingseveraltimesinbadweatherandeventuallyrunningoutoffuel.Examinationoftheflightrecorderdatashowedthatthefirstandsecondofficers,whocamefromnationalcultureswheresubordinatestendtowithholdbadinformationfromsuperiorsinordertomaintainharmony,failedtoprovidethecaptainorAirTrafficControlwithcontinuedinformationontheworseningfuelsituation(Helmreich,1994).
Theseexampleshelpillustratethatcultureatthenational,organizational,orsub-unitlevelexertsasubtleandyetpowerfulinfluenceonpeopleandorganizationsandthatinformationflowsandinformationtechnologiesareoftencloselyintertwinedwithculture.Culturetheoryhasbeenusedtoexplainanextensiverangeofsocialbehaviorsandoutcomesinorganizationalsettings(NadlerandTushman,1988;Keesing,1974),includingfirmeffectiveness(DenisonandMishra,1995;Duncan,1989),firmperformance(KotterandHeskett,1992;Gordon,1985,GordonandDiTomasso,1992),corporatestrategy(Wallach,1983),jobattitudes(BirnbaumandSommers,1986),administrativepractices(Thomas,1989),mergerandacquisitionoutcomes(WeberandShenkar,1996),technologytransferpractices(Hussain,1998)andconflictresolutionstrategiesinproductinnovationsettings(Xie,Song,andStringfellow,1998).Culturealsohasapowerfulinfluenceoninformationrelatedbehaviors,includingatthemostbasiclevel,whatisconsideredtobelegitimateinformation(Hall,1983).
ITresearchersinterestedintherelationshipofculturetoinformationandinformationtechnologieshavestudiedtheimpactofnationalandorganizationalcultureonsundryITissues.Atthenationallevel,researchinvestigatestheapplicabilityoftraditionallywestern-basedmanagementtheoriestonon-westernculturesandtheinfluenceofnationalcultureonthedevelopmentanduseofICTs(MyersandTan,2002;Straub,1994;Walsham,2002).Morerecently,workbyMyersandTan(2002)andFord,Connelly,andMeister(2003)providecriticalexaminationsofcross-culturalISresearchandoffersuggestionsforfutureITresearchexaminingissuesinvolvingnationalcultureandIT.Attheorganizationallevel,seminalworkbyRobeyandAzevedo(1994)andRobeyandBoudreau(1999)haveconcentratedontheoriesoforganizationalcultureasameanstoexplainthecontradictoryconsequencesofinformationtechnologywithinfirms.AnimportantcontributionofsuchliteraturehasbeentopresenttheviewthatITissymbolic(FeldmanandMarch,1981;Scholz,1990;RobeyandMarkus,1984)andthereforesubjecttothevariousculturalinterpretationsofthoseusingit.Suchaviewprovidesanalternativetothenotionoftechnicaldeterminism(Weick,1990)andatthesametimeprovidesafreshviewofthepotentialforculturaltransformationthroughtechnologyuse(BernardandPelto,1987;Coombs,Knights,andWillmott,1992;VanManenandBarley,1985;Weick,1990).
Inspiteofthisrichtraditionofinquiryinbothorganizationalandcross-culturalISresearch,webelievethatacomprehensivereviewthatexaminesbothstreamsofIT-cultureresearchcanhelpprovideamorecompleteperspectiveoftherelationshipofculturetoIT.ThegoalofthispaperistobuilduponthepriorIT-cultureresearchtoinformourunderstandingoftheconstructofcultureanditsrelevancetotheITfield,toclarifypriorIT-cultureresearchstreams,andtoprovidesubstantivedirectionsforfutureresearchintheformofatheoryandpropositions.OurreviewwillshowwherethenationalandorganizationalcultureITliteraturesoverlap,eventhoughtheyhavebeenseparatestreams,willidentifybothmajorandminorgapsintheliterature,andwillbuildupontheinsightsfromthereviewtoinformanewtheory.Thetheory,whichwelabeltheTheoryofIT-CultureConflict,providesanewperspectiveofcultureandITbyfocusingonthepotentialvalueconflictsthatmayemergeinthecontextofITdevelopment,adoption,use,andmanagement.WhereasothertheoriesconsiderthedirectimpactofcultureonvariousaspectsofITuseandoutcomes(forexample,seeKarahanna,Evaristo,andStrite,2005),ourframeworkintroducesthreetypesofculturalconflictanddiscussesthecausesandimplicationsoftheseculturalconflicts.
Thepaperisorganizedasfollows.Thefirstsectionprovidesanoverviewofculturetoclarifysomeofitsdefinitionalinconsistencies,underlyingdimensions,andresearchchallenges.Next,wepresentabriefoverviewofourresearchmethodologyinconductingthisreview.ThisisfollowedbyourreviewoftheITliteraturethatincludesnationalororganizationalcultureasacentralvariableinthestudy.Buildinguponthisreview,sectionfourpresentsafreshtheoreticalperspectiveontherelationshipbetweenITandculturethatincludespropositionstoguidefutureresearch.Thepaperconcludeswithasummaryofkeypointsdrawnfromouranalysis.
TheConceptofCulture
WhatisCulture?
Afirstchallengeinconductingresearchinvolvingcultureisarrivingatanunderstandingofwhatcultureis,giventhemyriadofdefinitions,conceptualizations,anddimensionsusedtodescribethisconcept(Straub,Loch,Evaristo,Karahanna,andSrite,2002).KroeberandKluckhohn(1952),forexample,identified164definitionsofcultureandSackman(1992)discusseshowculturehasbeenframedinvariousstudiesasideologies,coherentsetsofbeliefs,basicassumptions,sharedsetsofcorevalues,importantunderstandings,andthecollectivewill.Otherssuggestthatcultureincludesmoreexplicit,observableculturalartifactssuchasnormsandpractices(DelongandFahey,2000;Hofstede,1998),symbols(Burchell,Clubb,Hopwood,HughesandNahapiet,1980),aswellas
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