第二语言习得理论来自维基百科.docx
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第二语言习得理论来自维基百科.docx
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第二语言习得理论来自维基百科
Second-languageacquisition
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Second-languageacquisitionorsecond-languagelearningistheprocessbywhichpeoplelearnasecondlanguage.Second-languageacquisition(oftenabbreviatedtoSLA)alsoreferstothescientificdisciplinedevotedtostudyingthatprocess.Secondlanguagereferstoanylanguagelearnedinadditiontoaperson'sfirstlanguage;althoughtheconceptisnamedsecond-languageacquisition,itcanalsoincorporatethelearningofthird,fourth,orsubsequentlanguages.Second-languageacquisitionreferstowhatlearnersdo;itdoesnotrefertopracticesinlanguageteaching.
Theacademicdisciplineofsecond-languageacquisitionisasub-disciplineofappliedlinguistics.Itisbroad-basedandrelativelynew.Aswellasthevariousbranchesoflinguistics,second-languageacquisitionisalsocloselyrelatedtopsychology,cognitivepsychology,andeducation.Toseparatetheacademicdisciplinefromthelearningprocessitself,thetermssecond-languageacquisitionresearch,second-languagestudies,andsecond-languageacquisitionstudiesarealsoused.SLAresearchbeganasaninterdisciplinaryfield,andbecauseofthisitisdifficulttoidentifyaprecisestartingdate.However,itdoesappeartohavedevelopedagreatdealsincethemid-1960s.Thetermacquisitionwasoriginallyusedtoemphasizethesubconsciousnatureofthelearningprocess,butinrecentyearslearningandacquisitionhavebecomelargelysynonymous.
Second-languageacquisitioncanincorporateheritagelanguagelearning,butitdoesnotusuallyincorporatebilingualism.MostSLAresearchersseebilingualismasbeingtheendresultoflearningalanguage,nottheprocessitself,andseethetermasreferringtonative-likefluency.Writersinfieldssuchaseducationandpsychology,however,oftenusebilingualismlooselytorefertoallformsofmultilingualism.Second-languageacquisitionisalsonottobecontrastedwiththeacquisitionofaforeignlanguage;rather,thelearningofsecondlanguagesandthelearningofforeignlanguagesinvolvethesamefundamentalprocessesindifferentsituations.
Therehasbeenmuchdebateaboutexactlyhowlanguageislearned,andmanyissuesarestillunresolved.Therearemanytheoriesofsecond-languageacquisition,butnoneareacceptedasacompleteexplanationbyallSLAresearchers.Duetotheinterdisciplinarynatureofthefieldofsecond-languageacquisition,thisisnotexpectedtohappenintheforeseeablefuture.
History
AsSLAbeganasaninterdisciplinaryfield,itishardtopindownaprecisestartingdate.[2]However,therearetwopublicationsinparticularthatareseenasinstrumentaltothedevelopmentofthemodernstudyofSLA:
PittCorder's1967essayTheSignificanceofLearners'Errors,andLarrySelinker's1972articleInterlanguage.Corder'sessayrejectedabehavioristaccountofSLAandsuggestedthatlearnersmadeuseofintrinsicinternallinguisticprocesses;Selinker'sarticlearguedthatsecondlanguagelearnerspossesstheirownindividuallinguisticsystemsthatareindependentfromboththefirstandsecondlanguages.[7]
Inthe1970sthegeneraltrendinSLAwasforresearchexploringtheideasofCorderandSelinker,andrefutingbehavioristtheoriesoflanguageacquisition.Examplesincluderesearchintoerroranalysis,studiesintransitionalstagesofsecond-languageability,andthe"morphemestudies"investigatingtheorderinwhichlearnersacquiredlinguisticfeatures.The70sweredominatedbynaturalisticstudiesofpeoplelearningEnglishasasecondlanguage.[7]
Bythe1980s,thetheoriesofStephenKrashenhadbecometheprominentparadigminSLA.Inhistheories,oftencollectivelyknownastheInputHypothesis,Krashensuggestedthatlanguageacquisitionisdrivensolelybycomprehensibleinput,languageinputthatlearnerscanunderstand.Krashen'smodelwasinfluentialinthefieldofSLAandalsohadalargeinfluenceonlanguageteaching,butitleftsomeimportantprocessesinSLAunexplained.Researchinthe1980swascharacterizedbytheattempttofillinthesegaps.SomeapproachesincludedLydiaWhite'sdescriptionsoflearnercompetence,andManfredPienemann'suseofspeechprocessingmodelsandlexicalfunctionalgrammartoexplainlearneroutput.Thisperiodalsosawthebeginningofapproachesbasedinotherdisciplines,suchasthepsychologicalapproachofconnectionism.[7]
The1990ssawahostofnewtheoriesintroducedtothefield,suchasMichaelLong'sinteractionhypothesis,MerrillSwain'soutputhypothesis,andRichardSchmidt'snoticinghypothesis.However,thetwomainareasofresearchinterestwerelinguistictheoriesofSLAbaseduponNoamChomsky'suniversalgrammar,andpsychologicalapproachessuchasskillacquisitiontheoryandconnectionism.Thelattercategoryalsosawthenewtheoriesofprocessabilityandinputprocessinginthistimeperiod.The1990salsosawtheintroductionofsocioculturaltheory,anapproachtoexplainsecond-languageacquisitionintermsofthesocialenvironmentofthelearner.[7]
Inthe2000sresearchwasfocusedonmuchthesameareasasinthe1990s,withresearchsplitintotwomaincampsoflinguisticandpsychologicalapproaches.VanPattenandBenatidonotseethisstateofaffairsaschanginginthenearfuture,pointingtothesupportbothareasofresearchhaveinthewiderfieldsoflinguisticsandpsychology,respectively.[7]
Comparisonswithfirst-languageacquisition
Peoplewholearnasecondlanguagedifferfromchildrenlearningtheirfirstlanguageinanumberofways.Perhapsthemoststrikingoftheseisthatveryfewadultsecond-languagelearnersreachthesamecompetenceasnativespeakersofthatlanguage.Childrenlearningasecondlanguagearemorelikelytoachievenative-likefluencythanadults,butingeneralitisveryrareforsomeonespeakingasecondlanguagetopasscompletelyforanativespeaker.Whenalearner'sspeechplateausinthiswayitisknownasfossilization.
Inaddition,someerrorsthatsecond-languagelearnersmakeintheirspeechoriginateintheirfirstlanguage.Forexample,SpanishspeakerslearningEnglishmaysay"Israining"ratherthan"Itisraining",leavingoutthesubjectofthesentence.FrenchspeakerslearningEnglish,however,donotusuallymakethesamemistake.ThisisbecausesentencesubjectscanbeleftoutinSpanish,butnotinFrench.[8]Thisinfluenceofthefirstlanguageonthesecondisknownaslanguagetransfer.
Also,whenpeoplelearnasecondlanguage,thewaytheyspeaktheirfirstlanguagechangesinsubtleways.Thesechangescanbewithanyaspectoflanguage,frompronunciationandsyntaxtogesturesthelearnermakesandthethingstheytendtonotice.[9]Forexample,FrenchspeakerswhospokeEnglishasasecondlanguagepronouncedthe/t/soundinFrenchdifferentlyfrommonolingualFrenchspeakers.[10]ThiseffectofthesecondlanguageonthefirstledVivianCooktoproposetheideaofmulti-competence,whichseesthedifferentlanguagesapersonspeaksnotasseparatesystems,butasrelatedsystemsintheirmind.[11]
Learnerlanguage
Learnerlanguageisthewrittenorspokenlanguageproducedbyalearner.Itisalsothemaintypeofdatausedinsecond-languageacquisitionresearch.[12]Muchresearchinsecond-languageacquisitionisconcernedwiththeinternalrepresentationsofalanguageinthemindofthelearner,andinhowthoserepresentationschangeovertime.Itisnotyetpossibletoinspecttheserepresentationsdirectlywithbrainscansorsimilartechniques,soSLAresearchersareforcedtomakeinferencesabouttheserulesfromlearners'speechorwriting.[13]
Itemandsystemlearning
Therearetwotypesoflearningthatsecond-languagelearnersengagein.Thefirstisitemlearning,orthelearningofformulaicchunksoflanguage.Thesechunkscanbeindividualwords,setphrases,orformulaslikeCanIhavea___?
Thesecondkindoflearningissystemlearning,orthelearningofsystematicrules.[14]
Interlanguage
Mainarticle:
Interlanguage
Originally,attemptstodescribelearnerlanguagewerebasedoncomparingdifferentlanguagesandonanalyzinglearners'errors.However,theseapproachesweren'tabletopredictalltheerrorsthatlearnersmadewhenintheprocessoflearningasecondlanguage.Forexample,Serbo-CroatspeakerslearningEnglishmaysay"WhatdoesPatdoingnow?
",althoughthisisnotavalidsentenceineitherlanguage.[15]
Toexplainthesekindofsystematicerrors,theideaoftheinterlanguagewasdeveloped.[16]Aninterlanguageisanemerginglanguagesysteminthemindofasecond-languagelearner.Alearner'sinterlanguageisnotadeficientversionofthelanguagebeinglearnedfilledwithrandomerrors,norisitalanguagepurelybasedonerrorsintroducedfromthelearner'sfirstlanguage.Rather,itisalanguageinitsownright,withitsownsystematicrules.[17]Itispossibletoviewmostaspectsoflanguagefromaninterlanguageperspective,includinggrammar,phonology,lexicon,andpragmatics.
Therearethreedifferentprocessesthatinfluencethecreationofinterlanguages:
[15]
∙Languagetransfer.Learnersfallbackontheirmothertonguetohelpcreatetheirlanguagesystem.Thisisnowrecognizednotasamistake,butasaprocessthatalllearnersgothrough.
∙Overgeneralization.Learnersuserulesfromthesecondlanguageinawaythatnativespeakerswouldnot.Forexample,alearnermaysay"Igoedhome",overgeneralizingtheEnglishruleofadding-edtocreatepasttenseverbforms.
∙Simplification.Learnersuseahighlysimplifiedformoflanguage,similartospeechbychildrenorinpidgins.Thismayberelatedtolinguisticuniversals.
Theconceptofinterlanguagehasbecomeve
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