GRE孙远的工具箱社会.docx
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GRE孙远的工具箱社会.docx
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GRE孙远的工具箱社会
No.1孙远的工具箱(社会类)
社会类
1.ThefunctionofArt
Arthasaneffectontheindividualandonaparticularcultureinasociety.Psychologically,artenhanceslifebyaddingbeautytooursurroundings.Itisasourceofpleasureandrelaxationfromthestressesoflife.Socially,artplaysanumberofdifferentrolesbyvirtueofitscapacitytoembodysymbolicsignificancetoitsaudience.
ArtandSocialOrganization
Artfulfillsanumberofimportantsocialfunctions.Itisusedtocommunicatethevariousstatuespeoplehold.Itcanplayaroleinregulatingeconomicactivities.Anditisalmostalwaysameansforexpressingimportantpoliticalandreligiousideasandreligiousideasandforteachingprinciplesthatarevaluedinsociety.Theseandothersocialusesofartfunctiontopreservetheestablishedsocialorganizationofeachsociety.
StatusIndication
Oneofthesocialfunctionsofartisthecommunicationofstatusdifferencesbetweenindividuals.Forinstance,genderdifferencesinbodydecorationsanddressaretypicalofculturesthroughouttheworld.Agedifferencesmaybesimilarlyindicated.Pubertyritualsoftenincludetattooing,scarificationofthebodyindecorationdesigns,orevenfilingoftheteethtobetweenchildrenandadults.Socialclassdifferencesincomplexsocietiesalsoinvolveaestheticmarkerssuchastheclothingpeoplewearandthekindsofartworkstheuseasdecorationsoftheirhomes.AccordingtoSahlins,socialandeconomicclass,ageandgenderdifferencesarenoticeableeveninthekindsoffabricspeople’sclothingismadefrom.Forinstance,silksinmistsocietiesarepredominantlywornbywomen,especiallythosewhoarepartoftheupperclassesandthosewhoaremiddle-aged.
EconomicFunctions
Economiclife,byvirtueofitspracticalimportancetoitsoursurvivalandtoourstandardofliving,cansometimesbeasourceofconflictbetweengroupsthatmustcarryoutexchangewithoneanother.Sometimesart,perhapsbecauseitisvaluedforitsnonutilitarianqualities,canplayaroleofmaintainingharmonyinsuchsettings.
ReligiousFunctions
Muchofdramaticandemotionalimpactofreligionderivesfromitsuseofart.Religiousritualseverywhereincludesonganddanceperformances,andthevisualartsfunctiontoheightentheemotionalcomponentofreligiousexperienceinallpartsoftheworld,byportrayingimportantscenesandsymbolsfromreligioushistoryandmythology.Insomecultures,artandreligiousritualareinseparable.Forinstance,amongtheAbelamofPapuaNewGuinea,allartisproducedforuseinrituals.
DidacticFunctions
Artisoftenemployedasameansforteachingimportantculturalideasandvalues.Forinstance,hymnsinWesternreligiousexpresstheologicalconceptsandencouragethesupportofspecificreligiousvalues.
Politicalfunctions
Artoftenfunctionstolegitimizetheauthorityofgovernment.
Asastatementaboutthelegitimacyofgovernmentalauthority,artisaconservativeforceinsociety.Inthisrole,itisintendedtoelicitloyaltyandtostabilizesocietyanditspoliticalsystem.Governmentsalsosometimesdeliberatelyemploythisaspectofartaspropagandaurgingpublicactionthatsupportsofficialpolicy.Thus,propagandisticareembodiesbothdidacticandpoliticalfunctions.
2.InterculturalPrejudices
Incomplexsocietieswithlargepopulationsandmanycompetinggroups,prejudicesbetweengroupswithinthesocietymaybecomeacommonelementofdailyexperience,varyingfromgood-naturesrivalrytodirectantipathies.IntheUnitedStates,wemaythinkofourownstateas“God’sowncountry,”ourpoliticsastheonlyrationalwayofdoingthingsorourreligionastheonlyroadtosalvation.
Theattitudethatone’sowncultureisthenaturallysuperiorone,thestandardbywhichallotherculturesshouldbejudged,andthatculturesdifferentfromone’sownareinferiorissuchacommonwayofreactingtoother’scustomsthatitisgivenaspecialnamebyanthropologists.Ethnocentrism,centeredinone’sethos,theGreekwordforapeopleoranation,isfoundineveryculture.Peopleallowtheirjudgmentsabouthumannatureandabouttherelativemeritsofdifferentwaysoflifetobeguidedbyideasandvaluesthatarecenterednarrowlyonthewayoflifeoftheirownsociety.
Ethnocentrismservesasocietybycreatinggreaterfeelingsofgroupunity.Whenindividualsspeakethnocentrically,theyaffirmtheirloyaltytotheidealsoftheirsocietyandelicitinotherpersonsofthegroupsharedfeelingsofsuperiorityabouttheirsocialbody.Thisenhancestheirsenseofidentityasmembersofthesamesocietyandasbearersofacommonculture.Asharedsenseofgroupsuperiority—especiallyduringitsovertcommunicationsbetweengroupmembers—canhelpthemoverlookinternaldifferencesandpreventconflictsthatcouldotherwisedecreasetheabilityofthegrouptoundertakeeffectivelycoordinatedaction.
Formosthumanhistory,societieshavebeensmallerthanthenationsoftoday,andmostpeoplehaveinteractedonlywithmembersoftheirownsociety.Undersuchcircumstances,theroleofethnocentrisminhelpingasocietytosurvivebymotivatingitsmemberstosupportoneanotherintheircommongoalshasprobablyoutweigheditsnegativeaspects.However,ethnocentrismdefinitelyhasadarkerside.Itisadirectbarriertounderstandingamongpeoplesofdiversecustomsandvalues.Itenhancesenmitybetweensocietiesandcanbeamotivationforconflictamongpeopleswhoselivesareguidedbydifferentcultures.
3.CultureShock
Anthropologieswhoengageinfieldworkinaculturethatdiffersfromtheoneinwhichtheygrewupoftenexperienceaperiodofdisorientationorevendepressionknownascultureshockbeforetheybecomeacclimatizedtotheirnewenvironment.Eventouristswhotravelforonlyashorttimeoutsidetheirownnationsmayexperiencecultureshock,andunlesstheyarepreparedforitsimpact,theymaysimplytransformtheirowndistressintoamotiveforprejudiceagainsttheirhostsociety.
4.Groups
Themembersofsocialgroupsgenerallyidentifythemselvessymbolicallywithanameorsomeotheremblemoftheirgroupidentity.Commonly,theidentifyingemblemindicatestheactivitythatdrawsthememberstogetherorrepresentssomeotherimportantaspectofthegroup’scharacteristics.Thus,thegroupidentityoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaissymbolizedbyaflagthatportraysthepoliticalunityofthatsociety’s50statesbyagroupof50stars.ThegreatSealoftheUnitedStatesofAmericacontainstheimageofaneagleclutchinganolivebranchandarrows,symbolsofpeaceandwar,whichsuggestthatthemajorpurposeofthenationasapoliticalentityistomaintaininternalorderandtodefendthegroup.Asmaller,moreface-tofacegroup,suchasabasketballteam,mayidentifyitselfasaunitedbodybynamingitselfandbysymbolizingitsathleticpurposewithsomesymbolofitsprowess,suchasachangingbulloraflyinghawk.
5.Authority
Itwillnotcomeassurprisethatasocietythatadmiresindependenceandprogressdoesnothaveanautomaticrespectofauthority.Whatdeferencepeopleinauthoritydocommandisbaseontheiractualpowerratherthanontheirage,wisdom,ordignity.Oldpeopleareoftenseenasbehindtimes.It’stheyoungwhoareexpectedtohavesomespecialinsightintothemodemworld.
Afterall,itwasbyoverthrowingtheKingofEnglandthattheUnitedStateswasborn,andsuspicionofauthorityhasremainedapillarofAmericanlife.ThisattitudehashelpedestablishtheUSAasthebirthplaceofinnovationsthathavechangedtheworld.Ifabetterwayofdoingsomethingthatchangesasfastasours,experiencesimplydoesnothavethevaluethatitdoesintraditionalsocieties.
6.TheNo-StatusSociety
Inastatussociety,peoplelearntheirplacesandgainsomedignityandsecurityfromhavingaplaceinthesocialorder.Americans,however,aretaughtnottorecognizetheirplacesandtoconstantlyassertthemselves.Thiscanmanifestitselfinpositiveways—hardwork,cleverideas—butalsoinongoingdissatisfaction.
AsanAmericanisalwaysstrivingtochangehislot,heneverfullyidentifieswithanygroup.WehavenoexpressionssuchasinChina“thefatpiggetsslaughtered,”orinJapan,where“thenailthatsticksoutgetshammereddown.”Here,everybodyistryingtostickout,whichlimitsclosenessbetweenpeople.Wesay,“It’sthesqueakywherethatgetsthegrease.AccordingtoAlanRoland,authorofInSearchofselfinIndiaandJapan,intheUnitedStates“amilitantindividualismhasbeencombinedwithenormoussocialmobility,”leavingverygroupidentity.
RolandpsychoanalyzedAmericans,IndiansandJapaneseanddiscoveredthatthetwoAsiancultureshadnoconceptofthestronginnerseparationfromotherthatischaracteristicofAmericans.Becauseoursocietyissocompetitive,wefeelintheendthatwecanonlyrelyonourselves.
7.Conformity
ToanAmerican,whattheworldthinksofhimisextremelyimportant.Onlythroughtheeyesofotherscansuccesshavesignificance.ThetheoryofcultureanalystDavidRiesmanisthatAmericansarenolongerprimarilygovernedbyinnervalueshandeddownthroughgenerations.Instead,hethinksAmericanhavebecomeouter-directedpeople-guidednotbytheirownconsciencesbutbytheopinionsofothers.Tobelikeiscrucial.
AlthoughindividualismiscentralinAmerican—inthesensethattheselfcomesfirst—Americansarenotindividualists.Actually,personsinstatussocietieswhoaresecureintheirnichesareallowedmoreeccentricitythanAmericans,whorelyheavilyonsignalsthatotherpeoplelikethem.InAmerica,popularityisasignofsuccessandterriblyimportant.Nobod
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