Bibliography of PublicationsHuman Factor MaintenanceGood Practices in Visual InspectionDrury.docx
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Bibliography of PublicationsHuman Factor MaintenanceGood Practices in Visual InspectionDrury.docx
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BibliographyofPublicationsHumanFactorMaintenanceGoodPracticesinVisualInspectionDrury
gOODpRACTICESINVISUALiNSPECTION
ColinG.Drury
AppliedErgonomicsGroupInc.
98MeadowbrookRoad
Willimasville,NY14221-5029
JeanWatson
FederalAviationAdministration
FlightStandardsService
May2002
TableofContents
1.0ExecutiveSummary2
2.0Objectivesandsignificance3
2.1Objectives3
2.2Significance3
3.0Introduction3
3.1VisualInspectionDefined4
3.2CharacteristicsofVisualInspection4
4.0TechnicalBackground:
NDIreliabilityandhumanfactors7
4.1NDIReliability7
4.2HumanFactorsinInspection13
5.0ResearchObjectives21
6.0Methodology21
6.1HierarchicalTaskAnalysis22
7.0results25
7.1DetailedGoodPractices25
7.2ControlMechanisms25
8.Conclusions51
Appendix1-TaskdescriptionandtaskanalysisofeachprocessinVISUALinsepction59
Appendix2HUMANFACTORSBESTPRACTICESFOReachprocessinvisualinspection78
1.0ExecutiveSummary
VisualInspectionisthesinglemostfrequently-usedaircraftinspectiontechnique,butisstillerror-prone.Thisprojectfollowspreviousreportsonfluorescentpenetrantinspection(FPI)andborescopeinspectioninderivinggoodpracticestoincreasethereliabilityofNDIprocessesthroughgenerationofgoodpracticesbasedonanalysisofthehumanroleintheinspectionsystem.
Inspectioninaviationismainlyvisual,comprising80%ofallinspectionbysomeestimates,andaccountingforover60%ofADnoticesina2000study.ItisusuallymorerapidthanotherNDItechniques,andhasconsiderableflexibility.Althoughitisusuallydefinedwithreferencetotheeyesandvisiblespectrum,infactVisualInspectionincludesmostothernon-machine-enhancedmethods,suchasfeelorevensound.Itisperhapsbestcharacterizedasusingtheinspectors’senseswithonlysimplejobaidssuchasmagnifyingloupesormirrors.Assuch,VisualInspectionformsavitalpartofmanyotherNDItechniqueswheretheinspectormustvisuallyassessanimageoftheareainspected,e.g.inFPIorradiography.AnimportantcharacteristicofVisualInspectionisitsflexibility,forexampleinbeingabletoinspectatdifferentintensitiesfromwalk-aroundtodetailedinspection.Fromavarietyofindustries,includingaviation,weknowthatwhenthereliabilityofvisualinspectionismeasured,itislessthanperfect.Visualinspectors,likeotherNDIinspectors,makeerrorsofbothmissingadefectandcallinganon-defect(missesandfalsealarmsrespectively).
ThisreportusedaHierarchicalTaskAnalysis(HTA)techniquetobreakthetaskofVisualInspectionintofivemajorfunctions:
Initiate,Access,Search,DecisionandResponse.Visitstorepairfacilitiesanddatacollectedinpreviousprojectswereusedtorefinetheseanalyses.TheHTAanalysiswascontinuedtogreaterdepthtofindpointsatwhichthedemandsofthetaskwereill-matchedtothecapabilitiesofhumaninspectors.Thesearepointswhereerrorpotentialishigh.Foreachofthesepoints,HumanFactorsGoodPracticeswerederived.Overall,58suchGoodPracticesweredeveloped,bothfromindustrysourcesandhumanfactorsanalyses.ForeachoftheseGoodPractices,aspecificsetofreasonswereproducedtoshowwhythepracticewasimportantandwhyitwouldbehelpful.
Acrossthewholeanalysis,anumberofmajorfactorsemergedwhereknowledgeofhumanperformancecanassistdesignofVisualInspectiontasks.Thesewerecharacterizedas:
Timelimitsoncontinuousinsepctionperformance
Thevisualenvironment
Postureandvisualinspectionperformance
Theeffectofspeedofworkingoninspectionaccuracy
Trainingandselectionofinspectors
Documentationdesignforerrorreduction
Eachiscoveredinsomedetail,astheprinciplesapplyacrossavarietyofinspectiontasksincludingvisualinspection,andacrossmanyofthefunctionswithineachinspectiontask.
Overall,these58specificGoodPracticesandsixbroadfactorshelpinspectiondepartmentstodesigninspectionjobstominimizeerrorrates.Manycanbeapplieddirectlytothe“reading”functionofotherNDItechniquessuchasFPIorradiography.
2.0Objectivesandsignificance
ThisstudywascommissionedbytheFederalAviationAdministration(FAA),OfficeofAviationMedicineforthefollowingreasons:
2.1Objectives
Objective1.Toperformadetailedhumanfactorsanalysisofvisualinspection.
Objective2.TousetheanalysistoprovideHumanFactorsguidance(bestpractices)toimprovetheoverallreliabilityofvisualinspection.
2.2Significance
Visualinspectioncomprisesthemajorityoftheinspectionactivitiesforaircraftstructures,powerplantsandsystems.Likeallinspectionmethods,visualinspectionisnotperfect,whetherperformedbyhuman,byautomateddevicesorbyhybridhuman/automationsystems.Whilesomeinspectionprobabilityofdetection(PoD)dataisavailableforvisualinspectionmostrecommendationsforvisualinspectionimprovementarebasedonunquantifiedanecdotesorevenopiniondata.Thisreportusesdatafromvariousnon-aviationinspectiontaskstohelpquantifysomeofthefactorsaffectingvisualinspectionperformance.Thehumanfactorsanalysisbringsdetaileddataonhumancharacteristicstothesolutionofinspectionreliabilityproblems.Asaresultofthisresearch,aseriesofbestpracticesareavailableforimplementation.Thesecanbeusedinimprovedtrainingschemes,procedures,designofequipmentandtheinspectionenvironmentsoastoreducetheoverallincidenceofinspectionerrorinvisualinspectiontasksforcriticalcomponents.
3.0Introduction
Visualinspectionisthemostoftenspecifiedtechniqueforairframes,powerplantsandsystemsinaviation.TheFAA’sAdvisoryCircular43-204(1997)1onVisualInspectionforAircraftquotesGoransonandRogers(1983)2totheeffectthatover80%ofinspectionsonlargetransportcategoryaircraftarevisualinspections(page1).ArecentanalysisofAirworthinessDirectivesissuedbytheFAAfrom1995to1999(McIntireandMoore,1993)3foundthat561outof901inspectionADs(62%)specifiedvisualinspection.Infact,whenthesenumbersarebrokendownbycategory,only54%ofADsarevisualinspectionforlargetransportaircraft,versus75%fortheothercategories(smalltransport,generalaviation,rotorcraft).
3.1VisualInspectionDefined
Thereareanumberofdefinitionsofvisualinspectionintheaircraftmaintenancedomain.Forexample,initsAC-43-204,1theFAAusesthefollowingdefinition:
“Visualinspectionisdefinedastheprocessofusingtheunaidedeye,aloneorinconjunctionwithvariousaids,asthesensingmechanismfromwhichjudgmentsmaybemadeabouttheconditionofaunittobeinspected.”
TheASNT’sNon-DestructiveTestingHandbook,Volume8(McIntireandMoore,1993)3hasanumberofpartialdefinitionsindifferentchapters.UnderSection1,Part1,DescriptionofVisualandOpticalTests(page2),itdefines:
“….Visualandopticaltestsarethosethatuseprobingenergyfromthevisibleportionoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Changesinthelight’spropertiesaftercontactwiththetestobjectmaybedetectedbyhumanormachinevision.Detectionmaybeenhancedormadepossiblebymirrors,borescopesorothervision-enhancingaccessories.”
Morespecificallyforaircraftinspection,onpage292inSection10,Part2,foroptically-aidedvisualtestingofaircraftstructure,visualinspectionisdefinedbywhatitcandoratherthanwhatitis:
“visualtestingistheprimarymethodusedinaircraftmaintenanceandsuchtestscanrevealavarietyofdiscontinuities.Generally,thesetestscoverabroadareaoftheaircraftstructure.Moredetailed(smallarea)testsareconductedusingopticallyaidedvisualmethods.Suchtestsincludetheuseofmagnifiersandborescopes.”
However,thereismoretovisualinspectionthanjustvisualinformationprocessing.
3.2CharacteristicsofVisualInspection
Asusedinaviation,visualinspectiongoesbeyond“visual,”i.e.beyondtheelectro-magneticspectrumofvisiblewavelengths.Inasense,itisthedefaultinspectiontechnique:
ifaninspectionisnotoneofthespecificNDItechniques(eddycurrent,X-ray,thermography,etc.)thenitisusuallyclassifiedasvisualinspection.Thus,othersensescanbeusedinadditiontothevisualsense.Forexample,visualinspectionoffastenerstypicallyincludestheactionoffeelingforfastener/structurerelativemovement.Thisinvolvesactiveattempts,usingthefingers,tomovethefastener.Inhumanfactors,thiswouldbeclassifiedastactileormoregenerallyhapticinspection.Adifferentexampleischeckingcontrolcablesforfrayingbyslidingaragalongthecabletoseewhetheritsnags.Otherexamplesincludethesenseofsmell(fluidleakage,overheatedcontrolpivots),noise(inbearingsordoorhinges)andfeelofbacklash(inengineblades,alsoinhingesandbearings).Thepointisthat“visual”inspectionisonlypartiallydefinedbythevisualsense,eventhoughvisionisitsmainfocus.
Visualinspectionisofthegreatestimportancetoaviationreliability,forairframes,powerplantsandsystems.Itcanindeeddetectavarietyofdefects,fromcracksandcorrosiontoloosefasteners,ill-fittingdoors,wearandstretchingincontrolrunsandmissingcomponents.Itisubiquitousthroughoutaircraftinspection,sothatfewinspectorswillperformaspecializedNDItaskwithoutatleasta“generalvisualinspection”oftheareaspecified.Visualinspectionalsohastheabilitytofinddefectsinassembledstructuresaswellascomponents.Withremotesensing,e.g.borescopesandmirrors,thisinsitucharacteristiccanbeextendedconsiderably.Visualinspectionistheoldestinspectiontechnique,inusefr
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