人因工程学.docx
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人因工程学.docx
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人因工程学
HUMANFACTORSANDSYSTEMS
Inthebygonemillenniaourancestorslivedinanessentially“natural”environmentinwhichtheirexistencevirtuallydependedonwhattheycoulddodirectlywiththeirhands(asinobtainingfood)andwiththeirfeet(asinchasingprey,gettingtofoodsources,andescapingfrompredators).Overthecenturiestheydevelopedsimpletoolsandutensils,andtheyconstructedshelterforthemselvestoaidintheprocessofkeepingaliveandmakinglifemoretolerable.
Thehumanracehascomealongwayfromthedaysofprimitivelifetothepresentwithourtremendousarrayofproductsandfacilitiesthathavebeenmadepossiblewithcurrenttechnology,includingphysicalaccoutrementsandfacilitiesthatsimplycouldnothavebeenimaginedbyourancestorsintheirwildestdreams.Inmanycivilizationsofourpresentworld,themajorityofthe“things”peopleusearemadebypeople.Eventhoseengagedinactivitiesclosetonature—fishing,farming,camping-usemanysuchdevices.
Thecurrentinterestinhumanfactorsarisesfromthefactthattechnologicaldevelopmentshavefocusedattention(insomecasesdramatically)ontheneedtoconsiderhumanbeingsinsuchdevelopments.Haveyoueverusedatool,device,appliance,ormachineandsaidtoyourself,“Whatadumbwaytodesignthis;itissohardtouse!
Ifonlytheyhaddonethisorthat,usingitwouldbesomucheasier.”Ifyouhavehadsuchexperiences,youhavealreadybeguntothinkintermsofhumanfactorsconsiderationsinthedesignofthingspeopleuse.Norman(1988),inanentertainingbook,providesnumerousexamplesofeverydaythingsthatwerenotdesignedfromahumanfactorsperspective,includingsingle-controlshowerfaucets,videocassetterecorders,andstove-topcontrols.Inasense,thegoalofhumanfactorsistoguidetheapplicationsoftechnologyinthedirectionofbenefitinghumanity.Thistextoffersanoverviewofthehumanfactorsfield;itsvarioussectionsandchaptersdealwithsomeofthemoreimportantaspectsofthefieldastheyapplytosuchobjectives.
HUMANFACTORSDEFINED
Beforeattemptingtodefinehumanfactors,weshouldsayawordaboutterms.HumanfactorsisthetermusedintheUnitedStatesandafewothercountries.Thetermergonomics,althoughusedintheUnitedStates,ismoreprevalentinEuropeandtherestoftheworld.Somepeoplehavetriedtodistinguishbetweenthetwo,butwebelievethatanydistinctionsarearbitraryandthat,forallpracticalpurposes,thetermsaresynonymous.Anothertermthatisoccasionallyseen(especiallywithintheU.S.military)ishumanengineering.However,thistermislessfavoredbytheprofession,anditsuseiswaning.Finally,thetermengineeringpsychologyisusedbysomepsychologistsintheUnitedStates.Somehavedistinguishedengineeringpsychology,asinvolvingbasicresearchonhumancapabilitiesandlimitations,fromhumanfactors,whichismoreconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheinformationtothedesignofthings.Sufficeittosay,noteveryonewouldagreewithsuchadistinction.
Weapproachthedefinitionofhumanfactorsintermsofitsfocus,objectives,andapproach.
FocusofHumanFactors
Humanfactorsfocusesonhumanbeingsandtheirinteractionwithproducts,equipment,facilities,procedures,andenvironmentsusedinworkandeverydayliving.Theemphasisisonhumanbeings(asopposedtoengineering,wheretheemphasisismoreonstrictlytechnicalengineeringconsiderations)andhowthedesignofthingsinfluencespeople.Humanfactors,then,seekstochangethethingspeopleuseandtheenvironmentsinwhichtheyusethesethingstobettermatchthecapabilities,limitations,andneedsofpeople.
ObjectivesofHumanFactors
Humanfactorshastwomajorobjectives.Thefirstistoenhancetheeffectivenessandefficiencywithwhichworkandotheractivitiesarecarriedout.Includedherewouldbesuchthingsasincreasedconvenienceofuse,reducederrors,andincreasedproductivity.Thesecondobjectiveistoenhancecertaindesirablehumanvalues,includingimprovedsafety,reducedfatigueandstress,increasedcomfort,greateruseracceptance,increasedjobsatisfaction,andimprovedqualityoflife.Itmayseemlikeatallordertoenhanceallthesevariedobjectives,butasChapanis(1983)pointsout,twothingshelpus.First,onlyasubsetoftheobjectivesaregenerallyofhighestimportanceinaspecificapplication.Second,theobjectivesareusuallycorrelated.Forexample,amachineorproductthatistheresultofhumanfactorstechnologyusuallynotonlyissafer,butalsoiseasiertouse,resultsinlessfatigue,andismoresatisfyingtotheuser.
ApproachofHumanFactors
Theapproachofhumanfactorsisthesystematicapplicationofrelevantinformationabouthumancapabilities,limitations,characteristics,behavior,andmotivationtothedesignofthingsandprocedurespeopleuseandtheenvironmentsinwhichtheyusethem.Thisinvolvesscientificinvestigationstodiscoverrelevantinformationabouthumansandtheirresponsestothings,environments,etc.Thisinformationservesasthebasisformakingdesignrecommendationsandforpredictingtheprobableeffectsofvariousdesignalternatives.Thehumanfactorsapproachalsoinvolvestheevaluationofthethingswedesigntoensurethattheysatisfytheirintendedobjectives.Althoughnoshortcatchphrasecanadequatelycharacterizethescopeofthehumanfactorsfield,suchexpressionsasdesigningforhumanuseandoptimizingworkingandlivingconditionsgiveapartialimpressionofwhathumanfactorsisabout.Forthosewhowouldlikeaconcisedefinitionofhumanfactorswhichcombinestheessentialelementsoffocus,objectives,andapproachdiscussedabove,wepresentthefollowingdefinition,modifiedslightlyfromChapanis(1985):
Humanfactorsdiscoversandappliesinformationabouthumanbehavior,abilities,limitations,andothercharacteristicstothedesignoftools,machines,systems,tasks,jobs,andenvironmentsforproductive,safe,comfortable,andeffectivehumanuse.
Discussion
Thereareseveralmoreorlessestablisheddoctrinesthatcharacterizethehumanfactorsprofessionandthattogetherdistinguishitfromotherappliedfields:
•Commitmenttotheideathatthings,machines,etc.arebuilttoservehumansandmustbedesignedalwayswiththeuserinmind
•Recognitionofindividualdifferencesinhumancapabilitiesandlimitationsandanappreciationfortheirdesignimplications
•Convictionthatthedesignofthings,procedures,etc.influenceshumanbehaviorandwell-being•Emphasisonempiricaldataandevaluationinthedesignprocess
•Relianceonthescientificmethodandtheuseofobjectivedatatotesthypothesesandgeneratebasicdataabouthumanbehavior
•Commitmenttoasystemsorientationandarecognitionthatthings,procedures,environments,andpeopledonotexistinisolation
Wewouldberemissifwedidnotatleastmentionwhathumanfactorsisnot.Alltoooften,whenpeopleareaskedwhathumanfactorsis,theyrespondbysayingwhatitisnot.Thefollowingarethreethingshumanfactorsisnot.
Humanfactorsisnotjustapplyingchecklistsantiguidelines.lobesure,humanfactorspeopledevelopandusechecklistsandguidelines,however,suchaidsareonlypartoftheworkofhumanfactors.Thereisnotachecklistorguidelineinexistencetodaythat,ifitwereblindlyapplied,wouldensureagoodhumanfactorsproduct.Trade-offs,considerationsofthespecificapplication,andeducatedopinionsarethingsthatcannotbecapturedbyachecklistorguidelinebutareallimportantindesigningforhumanuse.
Humanfactorsisnotusingoneselfasthemodelfordesigningthings.Justbecauseasetofinstructionsmakessensetoanengineer,thereisnoguaranteeotherswillunderstandthem.Justbecauseadesignercanreachallthecontrolsonamachine,thatisnoguaranteethateveryoneelsewillbeabletooso.Humanfactorsrecognizesindividualdifferencesandtheneedtoconsidertheuniquecharacteristicsofuserpopulationsindesigningthingstortheiruse.Simplybeingahumanbeingdoesnotmakeapersonaqualifiedhumanactorsspecialist.
Humanfactorsisnotjustcommonsense.Tosomeextent,useofcommonsensewouldimproveadesign,buthumanfactorsismorethanjustthat.Knowinghowlargetomakelettersonasigntobereadataspecificdistanceorselectinganaudiblewarningthatcanbeheardanddistinguishedfromotheralarmsisnotdeterminedbysimplecommonsense.Knowinghowlongitwilltakepilotstorespondtoawarninglightorbuzzerisalsonotjustcommonsense.Giventhenumberofhumanfactorsdeficienciesinthethingsweuse,ifhumanfactorsisbasedonjustcommonsense,thenwemustconcludethatcommonsenseisnotverycommon.
AHISTORYOFHUMANFACTORS
Tounderstandhumanfactors,itisimportanttoknowfromwherethedisciplinecame.Itisnotpossible,however,topresentmorethanjustabriefoverviewofthemajorhumanfactorsdevelopments.WehavechosentoconcentrateondevelopmentsintheUnitedStates,butseveralsourcestracethehistoryinothercountries[see,forexample,EdholmandMurrell(1973),Singleton(1982),andWeiford(1976)].
EarlyHistory
Itcouldbesaidthathumanfactorsstartedwhenearlyhumansfirstfashionedsimpletoolsandutensils.Suchanassertion,however,mightbealittlepresumptuous.Thedevelopmentofthehumanfactorsfieldhasbeeninextricablyintertwinedwithdevelopmentsintechnologyandassuchhaditsbeginningintheindustrialrevolutionofthelate1800sandearly1900s.Itwasduringtheearly1900s,forexample,thatFrankandLillianGilbrethbegantheirworkinmotionstudyandshopmanagement.TheGilbreths’workcanbeconsideredas
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