Conversational-Implicature-Pragmatics-3.ppt
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Conversational-Implicature-Pragmatics-3.ppt
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ConversationalImplicature,Lecture3,Wordsarelikeleaves;andwheretheymostabound,Muchfruitofsensebeneathisrarelyfound.(AlexanderPope,AnEssayonCriticism),Theoriesofmeaning,Thereferentialtheoryclaimsthateverysentenceisacombinationofwordsandeachwordstandsforanobject.Themeaningofthewordistheobjectthewordrefersto.ThekingofFranceisbald.ThemorningstaristheEveningstar.,Thedistinctionbetweenasentenceandtheuseofasentence“wecannottalkofthesentencebeingtrueorfalse,butonlyofitsbeingusedtomakeatrueorfalseassertion,or(ifthisispreferred)toexpressatrueorfalseproposition.”(Strawson,1950)Wariswar.,Meaninginuse,contextandintentionStevenson(1963)proposestwokindsofmeaning:
Descriptive/conventionalmeaningnotcarrytheindividualwillandattitudePsychological/pragmaticmeaningdependontheintentionandfeelingofthespeakerandhearer.,Gricestheoryofmeaning,Naturalmeaning(meaning-n)Withnoagentorintention,themeaningisperceivednaturally.XmeansthatPentailsP.Thoseblackcloudsmeanrain.Thosespotsmeanmeasles.Non-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn)Intentionisinvolved.XmeansP,butitdoesntnecessarilyentailP.Theringsonthebellmeanthebusisfull.Hiscoughmeansthatheisseriouslyill.,Non-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn),AmeantsomethingbyX=AintendedtheutteranceofXtoproducesomeeffectinanaudiencebymeansoftherecognitionofthisintention.(Grice,inMeaning,1957)Smeant-nnbyutteringUifandonlyif:
(i)SintendedUtocausesomeeffectzinrecipientH(ii)Sintended(i)tobeachievedsimplybyHrecognizingthatintention(i)Whatiscommunication?
IncidentaltransferofinformationCommunicationproperinvolvesintentionandagency.Onlythoseinferencesthatareopenlyintendedtobeconveyedcanproperlybesaidtohavebeencommunicated.,Kindsofcommunicationalcontent,Saidvs.implicated“Withsomeknowledgeofacertainlanguage,thespeakerproducesastandardgrammaticalsentenceandthissentence,withoutanyconsiderationofcircumstantialfactors,canbeunderstoodproperlyaccordingtoitsconventionalmeaning.”(truth-conditional)Conventionalvs.non-conventionalSimplyattachedbyconventiontoparticularlexicalitemsorexpressions.(but,therefore,even,yet)Sheispoorandhonest.Sheispoorbuthonest.(propositionalcontent,implication)(context-free),Non-conversationalvs.conversationalApoorlydescribedclasswhichGricethoughtasderivablefromthepossible“aesthetic,social,ormoral”maximswhichheindicatedexistbutdidnotargueforinhisworkCP-involvedimplicature(CP)A:
Whereismyfish?
B:
Oh,thecatlookshappy.Generalvs.particular(maximobservation),Conversationalimplicature,PutforwardbyGriceintheWilliamJamesLecturesatHarvardUniversityin1967Aninferencefromthesemanticcontentdependingoncontext,speakersintention,hearersattitudeandthemutualassumption.TheCP-directedimplicaturesAnotherclassictopicinPragmaticsbecauseitstudiestheunstablecontext-specificpragmaticoverlayofthatstablesemanticcore.,TheimportanceofCI,CIstandsasaparadigmaticexampleofthenatureandpowerofpragmaticexplanationoflinguisticphenomena.Itprovidessomeexplicitaccountofhowitispossibletomeanmorethanwhatisactuallysaid.A:
Canyoutellmethetime?
B:
Well,themilkmanhasjustcome.,Itseemslikelytosimplifythestructureandthecontentofsemanticdescriptions.Thelonerangerjumpedonhishorseandrodeintothesunset.Thelonerangerrodeintothesunsetandjumpedonhishorse.Theflagiswhite.Theflagiswhite,redandblue.(ambiguous?
)Thetheoryhasaverygeneralexplanatorypower:
afewbasicprincipleprovideexplanationsforalargearrayofapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Metaphors,tautologies,somelogicaldilemma,nallnotall,CooperativePrinciple,CP-Makeyourcontributionsuchasitisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.N.B.Phrasedasaprescriptivecommand,theprincipleisintendedasadescriptionofhowpeoplenormallybehaveinconversation(differentfromRhetoric).,4maxims,ThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationMakeyourcontributionrelevant.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous,andspecifically:
avoidobscurityavoidambiguitybebriefbeorderly.TheHorniansystem,Observationvs.violation,Observation:
Observationofboththegeneralprincipleanditsmaxims(Whatdayistoday?
Thursday.)Observationofthegeneralprincipleonly(adherencetotheprincipleatadeeperlevel),Violations:
ViolationofCPasawhole(noCI)withoutthehearersawareness(misleading,e.g.lie)attheawarenessofthehearer(“nocomments.”notmisleading)Violationofcertainmaximsonly(CI)reluctantviolationofonemaximinordertoobserveanother(Atwhattimearetheygoingtotheairport?
Sometimethismorning.)deliberateviolation(Mrs.Smithisjustanoldwindbag.Whatalovelyday!
),Observationandviolation,Observationofboththegeneralprincipleanditsmaxims+SCIObservationofthegeneralprincipleonly+NSCIViolationofcertainmaximsonlyViolationofCPasawhole+nomeaningfulCI,StandardCI,(Levinson,1983)TheinferencethatarisefromobservingmaximsJohnhastwoPhDs.(Ibelievehehas,andhaveadequateevidencethathehas.)?
JohnhastwoPhDsbutIdontbelievehehas.Nigelhas14children.Passmethesalt.(now)A:
Iamoutofpetrol.B:
Thereisagarageatthecorner.Alfredwenttothestoreandboughtsomewhisky.,Non-standardCI,Achievedbyovertlyandblatantlynotfollowingsomemaxim,inordertoexploititforcommunicativepurposes.QueenVictoriawasmadeofiron.EitherJohnwillcomeorhewont.Johnny:
Hey,Sally,letsplaymarble.Mother:
Howsyourhomeworkgettingalong,Johnny?
MissSingerproducedaseriesofsoundscorrespondingcloselytothescoreofanariafromRigoletto.,GeneralizedCI,ProposedbyGriceCIthatariseswithoutanyparticularcontextorspecialscenariobeingnecessary.Iwalkedintoahouseandfoundatortoisebehindthedoor.AGCIcanbeinferredfromtheexpressionAnF,i.e.thementionedFisnotclosetothespeaker.N.B.DifferentfromconventionalimplicaturetheinvolvementofthecontextandthecancellabilityIcutafingeryesterday.,ParticularizedCI,CIsthatdorequirespecificcontexts,inferencethatdependsonparticulartime,place,participantsandotherspecificcontexts.Whatonearthhashappenedtotheroastbeef?
Thedogislookingveryhappy.我终于成功抢注了“功夫熊猫”这个网名,够酷吧!
哦,你老爸是鸭子。
ConnectionbetweentheabovetwopairsofCIs,Standardvs.non-standardGeneralizedvs.particularizedTheyareoftenmistakenlyassumedtobethesame,buttheydonotcoincide.AnF(bothstandardandgeneralized)Mywifeisanangel.Youaresolucky.Mywifeisstillalive.(bothnon-standardandparticularized)Wariswar.香港是东方明珠。
(non-standardbutgeneralized),Foryourfurtherthinking,Whenadiplomatsaysyes,hemeansperhaps;Whenhesaysperhaps,hemeansno.Whenaladysaysno,shemeansperhaps;Whenshesaysperhaps,shemeansyes.Ifyoucanfinishyourhomeworktoday,perhapswecangototheamusementparktomorrow.(wemaygoorwemaynotgo,standardandgeneralized)Ifyouinvitemetogooutwithyou,perhapsIllagree.(Iwillgowithyou,non-standardandparticularized),Theinterpretation,PCIGCIBringmetheredflag.BringmethenationalflagofChina.Therearesomanyflagshere.Whichoneisit?
Ok,bringmetheredone,please.,PrerequisitesforthesuccessfulperformanceofCI,FromtheperspectiveofSSssayingthatpconversationallyimplicatesqiff:
(i)Sispresumedtobeobservingthemaxims,oratleast(inthecaseoffloutings)theco-operativeprinciple(ii)inordertomaintainthisassumptionitmustbesupposedthatSthinksthatq(iii)SthinksthatbothSandtheaddresseeHmutuallyknowthatHcanworkoutthattopreservetheassumptionin(i),qisinfactrequired.,FromtheperspectiveofHFortheaddresseeHtobeabletocalculatetheimplicatureq,Hmustknow:
(i)theconventionalcontentofthesentence(P)uttered(ii)theco-operativeprincipleanditsmaxims(iii)thecontextofP(iv)certainbitsofbackgroundinformation(v)that(i)-(iv)aremutualknowledgesharedbyspeakerandaddressee,Thegeneralpatternforworkingoutanimplicature(i)Shassaidthatp(ii)theresnoreasontothinkSisnotobservingthemaxims,oratleasttheco-operativeprinciple(iii)inorderforStosaythatpandbeindeedobservingthemaximsortheco-operativeprinciple,Smustthinkthatq(iv)SmustknowthatitismutualknowledgethatqmustbesupposedifSistobetakentobeco-operating(v)Shasdonenothingtostopme,theaddressee,thinkingthatq(vi)thereforeSintendsmetothinkthatq,andinsayingthatphasimplicatedqPragmaticinferentialprocedureprovidedbythetheoryofCI,Foryourfurtherthinking,脑筋急转弯brainteaser指当思维遇到特殊的阻碍时,要很快的离开习惯的思路,从别的方面来思考问题。
老王一天要刮好多次脸,脸上却仍有胡子。
这是什么原因?
老王是个理发师有一个字,人人见了都会念错。
这是什么字?
这是“错”字一位卡车司机撞倒一个骑摩托车的人,卡车司机受重伤,摩托车骑士却没事,为什么?
卡车司机当时没开车Question:
canyouusethetheorywelearnedabovetoanalyzethepragmalinguisticfeaturesofbrainteaser?
Hint:
whatarethesimilarityanddifferencesintheprocessofinferringCIandsolvingbrainteaser?
SssuspendingofCPinacertaindegreeandHsinterpretationofUwiththeknowledgeofSssuspension(difficultyintheHsmentalactivationofmutualknowledge)Tobespecific:
Ssdeliberateviolationofmaxims+thecancelationofSCISsintentionalemploymentofunexpectedcontextualfactors+thecancelationofGCISsintentiontomisleadthehearer+thedifficultyindiscerningthespecificviolationandtheunexpectedcontextualfactor,FeaturesofCI,CancellabilityDeduction:
Allmena
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