欧洲经济英文论文1pdf.docx
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欧洲经济英文论文1pdf
Research&OccasionalPaperSeries:
CSHE.7.09
UNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA,BERKELEY
http:
//cshe.berkeley.edu/
EUROPEANRESPONSESTOGLOBALCOMPETITIVENESS
INHIGHEREDUCATION*
May2009
MarijkvanderWende
VUUniversityAmsterdam&CHEPS,UniversityofTwente
Copyright2009MarijkvanderWende,allrightsreserved.
ABSTRACT
Thegrowingglobalcompetitioninwhichknowledgeisaprimefactorforeconomicgrowthis
increasinglyshapingpoliciesandsettingtheagendaforthefutureofEuropeanhighereducation.
Withitsaimtobecometheworld’sleadingknowledgeeconomy,theEuropeanUnionis
concernedaboutitsperformanceintheknowledgesector,inparticularinthenexusofresearch,
highereducationinstitutions,andinnovation.Amajorconcernistosolvethe“Europeanparadox”:
wherebyEuropehasthenecessaryknowledgeandresearch,butfailstotransferthisinto
innovationandenhancedproductivityandeconomicgrowth.Furthercomplicatingthematter,
policyresponsesareformulatedandimplementedatdifferentlevelswithintheEU:
atthe
European-widelevel,thenational,regional,andinstitutionallevels.Moreover,theformulationof
policiesareoftenunderpinnedbydifferentperceptionsofthemeaningofglobalization,thenature
ofglobalcompetitionforthehighereducationsector,andbydifferencesinthecurrentabilityof
institutionstoeffectivelypromoteinnovationintheprivatesector.Thispaperoffersanoverview
ofrelevantEuropeanhighereducationpoliciesandresponsestoglobalcompetition,and
considershowglobalcompetitivenesscanbestbestimulatedandachieved;whatrole
competitionandcooperation-basedstrategiesatthenationalandEuropeanlevelplayinthis
respect,andwhatisthebestmix.
Responsestoglobalizationandmoreprecisely,thegrowingglobalcompetitioninwhich
knowledgeisaprimefactorforeconomicgrowth,areincreasinglyshapingpoliciesand
settingtheagendaforthefutureofEuropeanhighereducation.Withitsaimtobecome
theworld’sleadingknowledgeeconomy,theEuropeanUnionisconcernedaboutits
performanceintheknowledgesector,inparticularinresearch,(higher)educationand
innovation(theso-called“knowledgetriangle”),andaimstosolvethe“European
paradox”:
wherebyEuropehasthenecessaryknowledgeandresearch,butfailsto
transferthisintoinnovationandenhancedproductivityandeconomicgrowth.
*ThispaperisadaptedfromachapterintheforthcomingbookGlobalization’sMuse:
Universities
andHigherEducationSystemsinaChangingWorld,eds.JohnAubreyDouglass,C.Judson
King,andIrwinFeller(Berkeley:
PublicPolicyPress,forthcomingsummer2009).
vanderWende,EUROPEANRESPONSESTOGLOBALCOMPETITIVENESS
2
Indicatorsto“tellthestory”refertoinvestmentsinhighereducationandresearchthatlag
behindthoseintheUSAandJapan,asisthecasewiththelevelofhighereducation
qualificationsamongtheEUworking-agepopulation,andthenumberofresearchersin
thelaborforce.TheshareofEuropeanNobelPrizewinnershasdeclinedthroughoutthe
20thcentury,braindraincontinues,toofewEuropeanuniversitiesappearatthetopof
globalrankings,theuniversitiesholdfewregisteredpatents,theUSattractsmoreR&D
expenditurefromEUcompaniesthanUScompaniesallocatetotheEU,andChinamay
soonbespendingthesamepercentageofGDPonR&DastheEU—allofthesefacts
arefuelingfurtherconcern.
OECD’sSecretaryGeneralcommentedrecently:
“UniversitiesinEuropearenotlivingup
totheirpotential.Fundingistoolow,andtherewardsforexcellencearenotthereyet.
Linkstothebusinessworldarealsoweak.Europehasnoshortageofbrilliantminds,but
theyarelockedawayinlow-performinginstitutions”(Gurria,2007).
Awarenessoftheseconcernsisnotlimitedtogovernmentallevels,butisalsopresentin
thehighereducationsector:
"ItisevidentthattheEuropeanuniversitysystemneedsto
broadenaccessonamoreequitablebasis,thatithastoreachouttoincreased
excellenceandthatitmustallowformorediversificationwithinthesystem.The
Americanuniversitysystemis,astheformerPresidentoftheAmericanCouncilof
Education,DavidWard,putit,‘elitistatthetop,anddemocraticatthebase;the
Europeanuniversitysystemseemstobeneither[…].AlarmingforEuropeisnotonly
thatChinaregardstheUSandJapan,andnotEurope,asitspotentialpeerstobe
matchedinresearchandhighereducation.Asannouncedofficially,Chinaaimsat
matchingtheUSandJapanwithrespecttoinnovationsby2020.GivenEurope's
stagnationandthedynamicsinEastAsia,onecaneasilypredictthedaywhenEastAsia
—andnotEurope—willpossess‘theworld’sleadingknowledge-basedeconomy’"
(EUAPresident,2006).
Policyresponsestothepressuresofgrowingglobalcompetitivenesscannoteasilybe
capturedasonesingletrendorstrategy,astheyareformulatedandimplementedat
differentlevels:
European,national,andinstitutional,withtheregionalleveladditionally
sometimescuttingacrosstheEuropean/nationaldistinction.Moreover,theyare
underpinnedbysometimesquitedifferentperceptionsofglobalizationandthemeaning
ofglobalcompetitionforthesectorandbymajordifferencesintheiractualabilities(i.e.,
financialandhumanresources)tosupportaction.
Consequently,Europeanresponsesmayseemtobesomewhatpreoccupiedor
confused.Clearly,ittakesmorepoliticalconvictionthandemonstratedsofartoholdto
theintended3%GDPtargetforR&Dexpenditureandtoacceptthe2%GDPtargetfor
highereducationexpenditure,mainlythroughstimulatingmoreprivateinvestmentsin
theseareas.Conceptualandpracticalissuesarerelatedtotheneedforconvergence
(systemcoherenceandtransparency)andmorediversity(inordertoallowformore
accessandexcellence)atthesametime.Othermajorquestionsindesigningfurther
policiesfocusonhowglobalcompetitivenesscanbestbestimulatedandachieved;what
roledocompetitionandcooperation-basedstrategiesatthenationalandEuropeanlevel
playinthisrespect,andwhatisthebestmix?
CSHEResearch&OccasionalPaperSeries
vanderWende,EUROPEANRESPONSESTOGLOBALCOMPETITIVENESS
3
1.
EUHigherEducationPolicies
FortheEuropeanUnionasawhole,withtheEuropeanCommission(EC)beingamajor
policyactor,wecandistinguishdifferentphasesandapproaches(Huisman&Vander
Wende,2004;2005).Yetthewayinwhichindividualcountriesrespondtothesepolicy
initiativescanbequitediverse.
Briefhistoricaloverview:
theERASMUSera
AftertheECofthethen-countriesoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunitybecameactive
inhighereducationinthemid-1970s,itsinitiativeswereforalongperiodrestrictedto
stimulatingcooperationandmobilitybetween“closed”nationalsystemsinwhichthe
controllingpowerentirelylaywiththememberstates(basedonthe“subsidiarity
principle”).Suchinitiativesweresuccessfullyextendedacrosslevelsandcountriesuntil
theendofthe1990s.Beginningwithaninitiativetostimulateactionatthelevelof
individualacademicsandstudents,thefirstERASMUSprogram(1987)gradually
developedthroughtheSOCRATESprogram(1996)intoaneffortinwhichthecurriculum
andtheinstitutional(policy)levelwereincluded.WiththeenlargementoftheEU,
especiallyafter1992withpreparationsforthejoiningoftennewcentralandeastern
Europeanmemberstates,theactivitiesunderwentasubstantialgeographicexpansion.
Therationalesfortheseactivitieswereseenasmainlyacademicandcultural,for
examplescholarlyexchange,mutuallearningprocesses,andtheroleofforeign
languages.TheagendawasstronglyfocusedontheEuropeanintegrationprocess,and
consequentlyonintra-Europeancooperation.Yetitisalsoundeniablethattheprocess
ofEuropeanintegration,cementedbythecompletionoftheEuropeaninternalmarketin
1992,wasdrivenbyanimportanteconomicagenda.Mindfulofthis,in1991theEC
launchedaMemorandumonHigherEducationunderliningtheroleofhighereducation
intheeconomicandsocialcohesionoftheEU.Theresponseofthehighereducation
communitywasparticularlynegativeandcriticalofthisuseofaneconomicrationalefor
highereducation.ItwastenyearsbeforetheECwasabletocomebackwithanother
1
messageontheroleofhighereducationineconomicgrowthandcompetitiveness.
Twomajorvehicles:
theBolognaProcessandtheLisbonStrategy
Inthelate1990sinEuropeanhighereducation,awarenessofglobalcompetitionwas
raised.Itwasrealisedthatdespiteallthesuccessthathadbeenachievedinenhancing
2
intra-Europeanmobility,thepictureinrelationtoextra-Europeanmobilitywasaless
successfulone.Europehadlostitspositionasthenumberonedestinationforforeign
studentstotheUnitedStates,waslosingtoomanyofitsowngraduatesandresearchers
toR&DpositionsintheUnitedStates,andhadsubstantiallylessefficientdegree
structuresthantheUnitedStatesbecauseitsgraduatesenteredthelabormarketatan
olderagethandidAmericangraduates.Awarenessofthesefactorsledtoinitiativesat
variouslevels.First,in1998theministersoffourcountries(theUnitedKingdom,
Germany,France,andItaly),calledfortheharmonizationofdegreestructures.Thiswas
1
.Onalargerinternationalscale(includingnotablydevelopingcountries)andlaterintime,the
sametypeofresponseemergedfromthe1998UNESCOWorldConferenceonHigher
Education,whichalsostronglyrejectedthecompetitive
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