Euphemism.docx
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Euphemism.docx
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Euphemism
Aeuphemismisthesubstitutionofamild,inoffensive,relativelyuncontroversialphrase,forafrankexpressionthatmightoffendorotherwisesuggestsomethingunpleasanttotheaudience.[1]
Someeuphemismsareintendedtoamuse,whileothersarecreatedtomisleadoratleastputapositivespinonevents.Euphemismscanalsobeusedintheplaceofwordsconsideredprofane.
Contents
[hide]
∙1Usage
∙2Etymology
o2.1Categorization
∙3Evolution
o3.1Euphemismtreadmill
∙4Subjectmatter
o4.1Disabilityandhandicap
o4.2Profanity
▪4.2.1Religion
▪4.2.2Excretion
▪4.2.3Sex
▪4.2.4Racismandsexism
▪4.2.5Profanityitself
o4.3Deathandmurder
o4.4Warfare
o4.5Injobtitles
∙5Doublespeak
∙6Commonexamples
∙7Seealso
∙8References
∙9Furtherreading
Etymology
ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordευφημία(euphemia),meaning"theuseofwordsofgoodomen",whichinturnisderivedfromtheGreekroot-wordseu(ευ),"good/well"+pheme(φήμι)"speech/speaking".Theeuphemewasoriginallyawordorphraseusedinplaceofareligiouswordorphrasethatshouldnotbespokenaloud;etymologically,theeuphemeistheoppositeoftheblaspheme(evil-speaking).Primaryexamplesoftaboowordsrequiringtheuseofaeuphemismarenamesfordeities,suchasPersephone,Hecate,orNemesis.ThetermeuphemismitselfwasusedasaeuphemismbytheancientGreeks,meaning"tokeepaholysilence"(speakingwellbynotspeakingatall).
Historicallinguisticshasrevealedtracesoftaboodeformationsinmanylanguages.SeveralareknowntohaveoccurredinIndo-Europeanlanguages,includingthepresumedoriginalProto-Indo-Europeanwordsforbear(*rkso),wolf(*wlkwo),anddeer(originally,hart—althoughthewordhartremainedcommonplaceinpartsofEnglanduntilthe20thcenturyasiswitnessedbythewidespreaduseofthepubsignTheWhiteHart).IndifferentIndo-Europeanlanguages,eachofthesewordshasadifficultetymologybecauseoftaboodeformations—aeuphemismwassubstitutedfortheoriginal,whichnolongeroccursinthelanguage.AnexampleistheSlavicrootforbear—*medu-ed-,whichmeans"honeyeater".NamesinGermaniclanguages—includingEnglish—arederivedfromthecolorbrown.AnotherexampleinEnglishisdonkeyreplacingtheoldIndo-European-derivedwordass.Theworddandelion(literally,toothoflion,referringtotheshapeoftheleaves)isanotherexample,beingasubstituteforpissenlit,meaning"wetthebed",apossiblereferencetothefactthatdandelionwasusedasadiuretic.TheTalmuddescribestheblindashaving"muchlight"(Aramaicסגינהור)[2]andthisphrase—sageenahor—istheModernHebrewforeuphemism.
InsomelanguagesofthePacific,usingthenameofadeceasedchiefistaboo.AmongindigenousAustralians,itisforbiddentousethename,image,oraudio-visualrecordingofthedeceased;theAustralianBroadcastingCorporationnowpublishesawarningtoindigenousAustralianswhenusingnames,imagesoraudio-visualrecordingsofpeoplewhohavedied.[3]
Sincepeopleareoftennamedaftereverydaythings,thisleadstotheswiftdevelopmentofeuphemisms.Newnamesarefrequentlyrequiredwhenanoldonebecomestaboo.Theselanguageshaveaveryhighrateofvocabularychange.[4]
Inasimilarmanner,inimperialChina,writersofclassicalChinesetextswereexpectedtoavoidusingcharacterscontainedwithinthenameofthecurrentlyrulingemperorasasignofrespect.Intheseinstances,therelevantcharacterswerereplacedbysynonyms.(Thispracticemayprovideafairlyaccuratemeansofdatingadocument.)
Thecommonnamesofillicitdrugs,andtheplantsusedtoobtainthem,oftenundergoaprocesssimilartotaboodeformation,becausenewtermsaredevisedinordertodiscussthemsecretlyinthepresenceofothers.ThisprocessoftenoccursinEnglish(e.g.speedorcrankformeth)andisreallyslangformation,asitoftenisnotintendedtosubstituteasofterterm.ItoccursevenmoreinSpanish,e.g.,thedeformationofnamesforcannabis:
mota(literally,"somethingthatmoves"ontheblackmarket),grifa(literally,"somethingcoarsetothetouch"),marijuana(afemalepersonalname,MaríaJuana),cáñamo(theoriginalSpanishnamefortheplant,derivedfromtheLatingenusnameCannabis).AllfourofthesenamesarestillusedinvariouspartsoftheHispanophoneworld,althoughcáñamoironicallyhastheleastunderworldconnotation,andisoftenusedtodescribeindustrialhemp,orlegitimatemedically-prescribedcannabis.
[edit]Categorization
∙Abstractionsandambiguities(itforexcrement,thesituationor"agirlintrouble"forpregnancy,goingtotheothersidefordeath,doitorcometogetherinreferencetoasexualact,tiredandemotionalfordrunkenness.)
∙Indirections(behind,unmentionables,privates,livetogether,gotothebathroom,sleeptogether)
∙Mispronunciation(goldarnit,dadgummit,effingc,freakin,be-atch,shoot—seemincedoath)
∙Litotesorreservedunderstatement(notexactlythinfor"fat",notcompletelytruthfulfor"lied",notunlikecheatingfor"aninstanceofcheating")
∙Changingnounstomodifiers:
e.g....makesherlooksluttyfor"...isaslut",right-wingelementfor"RightWing")
∙Personalnames,suchasJohnThomasorWillyfor"penis",Fannyfor"vulva"(BritishEnglish).
∙Slang,e.g.potfor"cannabis",laidfor"havingsexualintercourse"andsoon.
Thereissomedisagreementoverwhethercertaintermsareorarenoteuphemisms.Forexample,sometimesthephrasevisuallyimpairedislabeledasapoliticallycorrecteuphemismforblind.However,visualimpairmentcanbeabroaderterm,including,forexample,peoplewhohavepartialsightinoneeye,oreventhosewithuncorrectedmildtomoderatepoorvision,agroupthatwouldbeexcludedbythewordblind.
Therearethreeantonymsofeuphemism:
dysphemism,cacophemism,andpowerword.Thefirstcanbeeitheroffensiveormerelyhumorouslydeprecatingwiththesecondonegenerallyusedmoreofteninthesenseofsomethingdeliberatelyoffensive.Thelastisusedmainlyinargumentstomakeapointseemmorecorrect.
[edit]Evolution
Euphemismsmaybeformedinanumberofways.Periphrasisorcircumlocutionisoneofthemostcommon—to"speakaround"agivenword,implyingitwithoutsayingit.Overtime,circumlocutionsbecomerecognizedasestablishedeuphemismsforparticularwordsorideas.
Toalterthepronunciationorspellingofatabooword(suchasaswearword)toformaeuphemismisknownastaboodeformation.ThereisanastonishingnumberoftaboodeformationsinEnglish,ofwhichmanyrefertotheinfamousfour-letterwords.InAmericanEnglish,wordsthatareunacceptableontelevision,suchasfuck,mayberepresentedbydeformationssuchasfreak—eveninchildren'scartoons.Someexamplesofrhymingslangmayservethesamepurpose—tocallapersonaberksoundslessoffensivethantocallapersonacunt,thoughberkisshortforBerkeleyHunt,whichrhymeswithcunt.
Bureaucraciessuchasthemilitaryandlargecorporationsfrequentlyspawneuphemismsofamoredeliberatenature.Organizationscoindoublespeakexpressionstodescribeobjectionableactionsintermsthatseemneutralorinoffensive.Forexample,atermusedinthepastforcontaminationbyradioactiveisotopeswasSunshineunits.[5]
Militaryorganizationskillpeople,sometimesdeliberatelyandsometimesbymistake;indoublespeak,thefirstmaybecalledneutralizingthetargetorEmployingKineticEffectsandthesecondcollateraldamage.Violentdestructionofnon-stateenemiesmaybereferredtoaspacification.Twocommontermswhenasoldierisaccidentallykilled(buysthefarm)bytheirownsidearefriendlyfireorblueonblue(BOBbing)—boughtthefarmhasitsowninterestinghistory.Itsoriginsmightcomefromthelifeinsurancepayoutoradeathbenefitpaymentthatwouldpermitthesoldier'sfamilytopayoffthemortgageonrealproperty,suchasafarm,orfrom"thefarm"beingaslangreferencetoaburialplot.InWorldWarItheslang"becomealandowner"meantto"inhabitacemeteryplot".[6]The"farm"isaeuphemismforproperty,and"buying"itisaeuphemismfortheServicemembers'GroupLifeInsurancebenefitpaymentthatshouldbesufficienttooutrightpayforthesoldier's"farm."In2010,theUnitedStatesadministrationofPresidentBarackObamaapproveda"targetedkilling"ofamanwantedbytheCentralintelligenceAgency,effectivelylaunchingthistermasanofficialalternativetolegalassassination.[7][8]
Executionisanestablishedeuphemismreferringtotheactofputtingapersontodeath,withorwithoutjudicialprocess.Itoriginallyreferredtotheexecution,i.e.,thecarryingout,ofadeathwarrant,whichisanauthorizationtoasheriff,prisonwarden,orotherofficialtoputanamedpersontodeath.Inlegalusage,executioncanstillrefertothecarryingoutofothertypesoforders;forexample,inU.S.legalusage,awritofexecutionisadirectiontoenforceacivilmoneyjudgmentbyseizingproperty.Likewise,lethalinjectionitselfmaybeconsideredaeuphemismforputtingtheconvicttodeathbypoisoning.
Abortionoriginallymeantprematurebirth,andcametomeanbirthbeforeviability.Theterm"abort"wasextendedtomeananykindofprematureending,suchasabortingthelaunchofarocket.Euphemismshavedevelopedaroundtheoriginalmeaning.Abortion,byitself,cametomean"inducedabortion"or"electiveabortion"exclusively.Hencetheparalleltermspontaneousabortion,an"actofnature",wasdroppedinfavorofthemoreneutral-soundingmiscarriage.
Industrialunpleasantnesssuchaspollutionmaybetoneddowntooutgassingorrunoff—descriptionsofphysicalprocessesratherthan
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