毕业设计论文外文文献原文.docx
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毕业设计论文外文文献原文.docx
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毕业设计论文外文文献原文
TheArtofChinesepoetry
JamesJ.Y.Liu
From:
TheArtofChinesepoetryUniversityofChicagoPress,1962:
3-16.
1
THESTRUCTUREOFCHINESECHARACTERS
ItisgenerallyrealizedthatChineseiswrittenwithcharactersinsteadofanalphabet—afeaturewhichistheultimatesourceofmanyofthecharacteristicsofChinesepoetry.However,thereisafallacystillcommonamongWesternreadersoutsidesinologicalcircles,namely,thatallChinesecharactersarepictogramsorideograms.ThisfallacyonthepartofsomeWesternenthusiastsforChinesepoetryhashadsomecuriousresults.ErnestFenollosainhisessay,‘TheChineseCharacterasaMediumforPoetry’,stressedthismisconceptionandadmiredChinesecharactersfortheirallegedpictorialqualities.Whileonecanunderstandhisenthusiasmforalanguagethatheimaginedtobefreefromthetendenciestowardsjejunelogicalityofsuperiorpoeticqualitiestoone‘smothertongue,onehastoadmitthathisconclusionsareoftenincorrect,largelyduetohisrefusaltorecognizethephoneticelementofChinesecharacters.Yetthisessay,throughEzraPound,hasexertedconsiderableinfluenceonsomeEnglishandAmericanpoetsandcritics.Thismaybeahappyexampleoftheso-calledcatalyticeffectofscholarship,butasanintroductiontoChinesepoetry,theFenollosaapproachis,tosaytheleast,seriouslymisleading.
Toclearawaythisbasicmisconception,wehavetoexaminetheprinciplesunderlyingthestructureofthecharacters.TraditionalChineseetymologypostulatessixprinciplesknownastheLiuShu.Thistermhasbeentranslatedas‘TheSixScripts’,thoughinfactitdoesnotrefertosixclassesofcharactersbutsixprinciplesregardingtheformationofcharacters,andmaythereforeberendered‘TheSixGraphicPrinciples’.ThedefinitionandcorrectorderofthesixprincipleshavebeensubjectsofcontroversyamongChinesescholarsforcenturies,andwecannotenterhereintointricateargumentsaboutthem.Ishallsimplydescribeeachprincipleinthewaythatseemstometobemostreasonable,withoutquotingsourcesandauthoritiestosupportmyinterpretations.IfanySinologueshouldobjecttothis,IcanonlyforestallhisobjectionbypointingoutthatIamwritingonChinesepoetryforanon-specialistpublic,notonChinesephilologyforexperts.
TheFirstGraphicPrincipleisHsiang-basing象形,or‘ImitatingtheForm’.Forinstance,thecharacterforri(‘sun’)is日(ancientform);thatforyue(‘moon’)is月(ancientform);thatforren(‘person’)is人(ancientform);thatformu(‘tree’)is木(ancientform);thatforyang(‘sheep’)is羊(ancientform).ThesecharactersbasedontheFirstPrinciplemaybecalledSimplePictogramsandrepresentedbytheletterP.
TheSecondGraphicPrincipleisZhi-shi指事,or‘pointingattheThing’.Charactersbasedonthisprinciplearesymbolsofabstractnotions,notpicturesofconcreteobjects.Forexample,thenumberyi,er,san(‘one,two,three’)arerepresentedbythecorrespondingnumbersofstrokes:
一,二,三.SuchcharactersmaybecalledSimpleIdeogramsandrepresentedbytheletterI.SometimesaSimpleIdeogrammayconsistofanalreadyexistingSimplePictogramwithanadditionalindicator,e.g.thecharacterfor‘tree’withastrokeacrossitstopbecomesthecharacterformo(‘treetop’):
末(ancientform),andthesamecharacterwithastrokeacrossitsbasebecomesthecharacterforpen(‘treeroot’):
本(ancientform).ThesecharactersmayberepresentedbytheformulaI=P+i,whereImeansindicator.
TheThirdPrincipleisHui-yi会意or‘UnderstandingtheMeaning’.Thisconcernsthecombinationoftwoormoresimplecharacterstoformanewcharacterinsuchawayastosuggestthemeaningofthenewone.Forinstance,thecharacterforming(‘bright’)is明(ancientform),whichconsistsofawindowandamoon(notsunandmoon);thecharacterfornan(‘man’)is男(ancientform),whichconsistsof‘field’and‘strength’.SuchcharactersmaybecalledCompositeIdeogramsandrepresentedbytheletterC.EachcomponentpartofaCompositeIdeogrammaybeaSimplePictogram,SimpleIdeogram,oranotherCompositeIdeogram,asthecasemaybe.(C=P+P`;C=P+I;C=I+I`;C=C`+P;C=C`+C``.)
TheFourthPrincipleisXie-sheng谐声,or‘HarmonizingtheSound’.Thisreferstotheuseofonecharacterasacomponentpartofanothertoindicatethesoundofthelatter.WhenthususeditisknowninEnglishasa‘phonetic’.Atthesametime,theotherpartofthecompositecharacter,whichsignifiesthemeaning,iscalledthe‘radical’or‘significant’.Thus,ifweusetheletterNtorepresentaCompositePhonogram,itusuallyconsistsofaphonetic(p)andasignificant(s),whilethephoneticandthesignificantinthemcouldbeSimplePictograms,SimpleIdeograms,CompositeIdeograms,orotherCompositePhonon-grams.(N=p+s;p=P,I,C,N`;s=P`,I`,C`,N``.)Thus,theCompositePhonogramforzhong(‘loyalty’)is忠,whichconsistsofaphoneticzhong中andasignificantxin心(‘heart’).Thephoneticzhonginitselfmeans‘middle’,andisaSimplePictogram,showingalinecuttingthroughthemiddleofasquare;中(p=I);whilethesignificantxin心(ancientform)isaSimplePictogramoftheheart,whichheresignifiesthat‘loyalty’hassomethingtodowiththeheart(s=P).OccasionallywefindaCompositePhonogramwithonephoneticandmorethanonesignificant.Forexample,thecharacterforbao(Archaicpronunciationbao;‘treasure’)is宝,whichconsistsofaphoneticfo缶(Archaicpronunciationpiog),andthreesignificant‘roof’宀,‘jade’玉,and‘mother-of-pearl’贝.(N=p+s+s`+s``.)
TheFifthPrincipleisZhuan-zhu转注,or‘MutuallyDefining’,whichisconcernedwiththeuseofsynonymouscharacters.
TheSixthPrincipleisJia-jie假借,or‘borrowing’,whichconcernstheloanofhomophones.
Itwillbeseenthatthelasttwoprinciplesareconcernedwiththeextendeduseofalreadyexistingcharactersandnotwiththeformationofnewones.Thusinfactthereareonlyfourbasicprinciplesunderlyingthestructureofthecharacters,andconsequentlyfourmaincategoriesofthem:
SimplePictograms,SimpleIdeograms,CompositeIdeograms,andCompositePhonograms.Thefirsttwoformonlyasmallminority,butsincetheyarethecharactersforthemostcommonobjects(e.g.sun,moon,tree)orthemostessentialconcepts(e.g.number,above,below,middle),theytendtodisguisethefacttheyareonlyaminority.ThemajorityofChinesecharactersbelongtothelastcategoryandcontainaphoneticelement.Moreover,eventhosecharacterswhichwereoriginallyformedonapictographicprinciplehavelostmuchoftheirpictorialquality,andintheirmodernformsbearlittleresemblancetotheobjectstheyaresupposedtodepict.(AcomparisonoftheancientformswiththemodernformsoftheSimplePictogramsgivenabovewillprovethis.)ThefallacyofFenollosaandhisfollowersshouldnowbeevident.
AnotherpopularfallacyaboutwrittenChineseistheconfusionbetween‘word’and‘character’,withtheconsequentfallacythatChineseisamonosyllabiclanguage.A‘word’inChinese,asinanyotherlanguage,isaunitofspeech,whichmaybeofoneormoresyllables,andhencewrittenwithoneormorecharacters.A‘character’isawrittensymbolwhichcorrespondstoonesyllableandmayformonewordorpartofaword.Theoreticallyeachcharacterhasameaning,butinactualusagesomecharactersdonotoccurindependentlybutonlytogetherwithothercharacters,e.g.ying-wu鹦鹉(‘parrot’),xi-shuai蟋蟀(‘cricket’—theinsect,notthegame,ofcouse!
),miao-tiao窈窕(‘graceful’),andpu-tao葡萄(‘grapes’).Thesearetoallintentsandpurposesdisyllabicwords,eachwrittenwithtwocharacters.Wordsofmorethantwosyllablesarerare,exceptfortransliterationsofforeignwords,e.g.Ah-mi-tuo-fo阿弥陀佛(AmitabhaBuddha).Sometimesacharactermayeitheroccurindependentlyortogetherwithanothercharactertoforma‘compound’.ThecharacterXian先(‘first’)andthecharactersheng生(‘tobeborn’)caneachoccurbyitself,buttogethertheyformacompoundxian-sheng(‘sir,gentleman,teacher’).Adisyllabiccompounddiffersfromadisyllabicwordinthateachconstituentpartofacompoundcanoccurseparately,thoughnotnecessarilyinthesamesenseasinthecompound.Usuallythemeaningofacompoundisderivedfromthoseofitsconstituentparts,thoughthismaynotbeobvious.Themeaningsofxian-sheng,‘sir,gentleman,teacher’,arederivedfromtheliteralsensesofxianandsheng:
‘firstborn’,hence,senior,toberespected,etc.aspecialcasemustbemadeofcompoundscontainingallusions,whosemeaningdifferfromtheliteralsensesoftheirconstituentpartsputtogether.Forinstance,zhi-xue志学,literally‘wishtostudy’,isanallusiontoConfucius’sremark,‘AtfifteenIsetmymindonstudying’,andthecompoundisthereforenottobetakenliterallybutasaconventionalwayofsaying‘fifteenyearsofage’.SuchallusivecompoundsarenumerousinChineseandsetaconstanttrapfortheunwary.
2
IMPLICATIONSANDASSOCIATIONSOFWORDSANDCHARACTERS
AsinEnglish,andtoanevengreaterdegree,awordinChinesedoesnotalwayshaveoneclear-cut,fixedmeaning,butoftencoversdifferentmeanings,someofwhichmaybemutuallyexclusive.Takeasimpleexample:
sheng;thisword,usedasaverb,couldmean:
tolive,togivebirthto,tobeborn;asanoun:
life,youngman,student;asanadjective:
alive,raw,strange,innate,natural,lively.TheembarrassdecboixpresentedbysuchwordsinChinesehasbeendemonstratedbyProfessorI.A.RichardsinhisMenciusontheMind,andmaybecomeasourceofconstantobscurity.Whilethismaybeaseriousdrawbackinexpositoryprose,itcanbe
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