1、 2）同音异义词 homophones: flower-flour, dear-deer, etc. 3） 同形同音词 perfect homonyms： angle-angle, bank-bank.2. predication analysis （述谓分析法）（语义分析）is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.
2、 Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument （logical participant） and predicate （relation element）. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. （instance）3 tenor of discourse （话语意旨） The “tenor of discourse” is about the variation rel
3、ating to, or resulting from, what the user is trying to do with language, such as teaching, persuading, advertising, instructing, etc. The generic situation of a discourse is often determined in terms of tenor of discourse. For example, an advertisement is by definition an attempt to persuade throug
4、h linguistic and visual means, and a sermon is designed to exhort and teach. 4.Arbitrariness任意性：refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship to their meaning. There is no logic connection between meaning and sounds. For instance, we cannot explain why a book is
5、called a /buk/and a pen a /pen/ （1.3.1） 5.Performance（语言运用）：the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.（1.9.4） A speakers language performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. （nervousness, ）6. Dysphonia （语言障碍） is the medical term for disorders of the voice:
6、an impairment in the ability to produce voice sounds using the vocal organs Thus, dysphonia is a phonation（发声） disorder. The dysphonic voice can be hoarse or weak, or excessively breathy, harsh, or rough, but some kind of phonation is still possible （contrasted with the more severe aphonia where pho
7、nation is impossible）.7. Received Pronunciation （标准发音 P34）is a way of pronouncing British English that is often used as a standard in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language. The abbreviation RP is also used. （Many people also call it BBC English, Oxford English. It is also widely used in publ
8、ic schools and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.）8.endocentric construction（向心结构）：is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD（4.2.3.1） usually, noun phrases,
9、verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types. Such as these two old stone bridges, will be leaving, very late. 9. Homogram（同形异义异源词） a word which has the same spelling as another but different meaning, derivation, or pronunciation. Same as homograph. Bow meaning the front of a ship,
10、 bow meaning a loop made in a string or ribbon and meaning a device used to shoot arrows are all homograms.10.manner of discourse（话语方式）：is the linguistic reflection of the relationship between the language user and the medium of transmission. Language is either spoken or written. Spoken language may
11、 be spontaneous or prepared, and written language may be spoken or to be read.11.Allophone音位变体：variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complemen
12、tary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. Ex. in the words /pit/ /tip/ /spit/, the different /p/s are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/. 12.design feature 结构特征：the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from language of animals. （There
13、are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.） 13.Synchronic 共时性: synchronic study is the description of a language at some point of time, usually but not necessarily the present, （as if it stopped developing）. For example, an essay entitled “O
14、n the Use of THE” may be synchronic if the author does not recall the past of THE.14.Diachronic历时性：said of the study of development of language and languages over time. （Diachronic study is the description of a language as it changes through time.） for example, the essay “On the Use of THE” may be d
15、iachronic if the author claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration15. competence语言能力:According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand a
16、n indefinite number of sentence am to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.16.Performance语用能力：the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. Speakers performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. 17.Langue语言：F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstrac
17、t linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is relatively stable and systematic.18. Parole言语：F. de Saussure refers “parole” to the actual language, or the realization of langue. Parole is specific to the speaking situation, and it is a naturally occurring event. For S
18、aussure, parole is a mass of confusing facts, thus not suited for systematic investigation. 19.Phonology音系学： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that oc
19、cur.20Consonant辅音：a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction,21.Vowel 元音：a major category of sound segments， produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air e
20、scapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose. 22. distinctive features区别特征：a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other
21、 people.23. IPA国际音标：a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）,designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It was to consist of as many Roman alphabet as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary. The latest version ha
22、s been revised in 1993and updated in 2005,see p.28.24.morpheme语素：the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or gramma
23、tical. For example, the word “tourists” contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning -ist（meaning person who does something ）, and a minimal unit of grammatical function-s（indicating plural）.25. Inflection屈折变化：is the manifestation of grammatic
24、al relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached, 26. root词根：refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is lef
25、t when all the affixes are removed. In the word “internationalism”, after the removal of inter-,-al and -ism, the part left is the root nation.27 loanword借词：the borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases ,to the phonological system of
26、the new language that they enter. For instance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup detat and others from French, al fresco（in the open air ） from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin （a type of shoe） from an American Indian language.28 Loanshift 转移借词：is a process in which
27、 the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means bridgein the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.29 Loanblend混合借词：is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed , but the m
28、eaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words cocnut and China-town from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin,30 Assimilation同化：refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called c
29、ontact or contiguous 接近assimilation. The assimilation processes as work could be explained by the “theory of least effort”; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little efforts as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimila
30、tion takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expression such as immoral, illegal, impolite, the negative prefixes im-, il- or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not far separated. For instance, discussing shortly （/s/become
31、s /） and confound it （/becomes/au/）.This is called noncontiguous or distant assimilation.” P2131 Dissimilation异化：refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of anther , so that the sounds become less alike, or different, For example: marbre （French）-marble peregrinus（Latin）pilgrim.32 category 范畴：The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically,
