1、Semanticsp.1 (1) divination = a skill or act of saying what will happen in the future or discovering something by magical method (Greek)（2）American Philological Association (APA, 美国语言协会) - Found in 1869 by professors, friends and patrons, which was the principal learned society in North America for
2、the study of ancient Greek and Roman languages, literature and civilization.(3) science = technique and knowledgep.2 (1) Malinowski - A famous English anthropologist (1884-1942) (Materials and social ideologies can be retained and spread so long as they can satisfied humans material need and social
3、need. - A Scientific Theory of Culture, 1922) From the perspective of Functionalism School (功能学派，1920s 50s) ( All cultural phenomena may have the function of satisfying mans need in the life.) (2) shape of things = the appearance of objects (3) science of signifies = meaning of symbols (4) Semantic
4、manoveuvres at Pentagon Homelessness reduced to semantics Manoveuvres = retreat Semantic and semantics = the stage of controllingP3(1) natural meaning and conventional meaning - cognitive and normalized(cloud, traffic light)(2) Language is more like P.4 (1) Obscure terms and technical terms - to ado
5、pt terms fuzzily and methodologically (2) a curious use = the relation between literal meaning and intentional meaning p.5 (1) All in all, it seems that So, 1.1 indicates that: (1) Semantics is a branch of study of linguistics. (Concerning other linguistic disciplines) (1) The original of the term “
6、semantics” should be clarified if we want to touch the study of meaning. ( adopting developing views of study)(2) Meaning is a complex thing because of mans cognitive factors and the existence of different languages. (thinking of other related disciplines)P.5(1) Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)- re
7、garded as “the father of modern linguistics”. His major contributions to the study of linguistics: diachronic and synchronic linguistics; paradigmatic(聚合) method and syntagmatic (组合) method and the relation between language (langue) and speaking (parole). He was greatly influenced by four persons: A
8、ristotle (384-322 B.C.), Humboldt (1767-1835), Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) and Emile Durkhelm (1858-1917). (2) plausibility = reasonability and the degree of truth (3) signifier (能指)and signified (所指) Signifier -pointing finger, the word, the sound image Signified - concept, the meaning, the t
9、hing indicated by signifier p.6 (1) First, language .; secondly, in language = the relations between meaning and function in languages. (2) the difference between scientific study of language and empirical study of language = theoretical study and practical study (test), for meaning can be understoo
10、d from kinds of aspectsp.7 (1) Chomsky (1957): “competence” and “performance” = competence means mans idealized capacity; performance states for the production of actual utterance. John Lyons (1973): “competence” is an ideal, a psychological or mental property or function Hymes (1974): “competence”
11、is communication.Paulston (1992): “competence” refers to the socially appropriate use of language.Velenzuela (1998): “competence” is a social construction of language communication. ( difference for the above?) p.8 (1) .Without any clear empirical basis - telling us the differences among the above.
12、(2) John Lyons “sentence meaning” - grammatical and lexical meanings in a contextual situation, “Secondary” aspects of meaning. Deep meaning ? the meaning beyond the words? The 1.2 indicates the following:(1) Meaning closely relates to word, but these two are not identical.(2) Learning linguistics i
13、s the basic step of studying meaning.p.9 (1) Bloomfield (1887-1949) - the important preventative of structural linguistics, his work Language(1933),28 chapters, including all aspects of language, and which was based on his early work An Introduction to the Study of Language. His major contribution t
14、o linguistics is the method of study language, which is from the perspective of all-round ways.p.10 (1) comparative philology - a very important branch of linguistic study, which has another name Historical Comparative Linguistics, appearing in the 19th century The focus of the study is the relation
15、s of kinship. ( Grimm, Bop and Rask) (2) sound laws - to compare two languages by their pronunciations. Grimm s Law in Proto- Germanic; Bergmanns law in Proto-Indo-Iranian; Winters law and Harts law in Balto-Slavic ( Question: Chinese and English? According to language family?) p.11 (1) etymology (词
16、源学) - the study of the origin s, history and changing meaning of words, or, to trace and state the etymology of word. E.g. catt - cat; docga - dog; Buddha （觉悟） 佛. (中国的训诂学称之为“声训”。)p.12 (1) diachronic and synchronic linguistics - the former refers to the study of how a language changes over a period o
17、f time, and the latter is the study of a language system at one particular point in time.The 1.3 indicates the following:(1) comparative way and etymology are two major channels for studying meaning of word, which is called historical semantics. (2) There are two ways called diachronic and synchroni
18、c ways which are still the best need for the study of meaning.p.13 (1) the relation of philosophy and linguistics - from three aspects: (1) Karl Popper (1902 1994): “three worlds”: textual world, physical world and mental world; (2) Lacans (1901-1981) “three dimensions” of thinking: existence, symbo
19、l and imagination; (3) the application of tropes of discourse: metaphor, metonymy (借代), antonomasia（换称) and so forth. All these focus on the point of “linguistic turn” (语言学转换), which was first proposed in the work Logic and Reality written by Bergman. Then another book Linguistic Turn: essays in phi
20、losophical method by Lodi. (2) psychology and linguistics - theory of behaviorism ( 19th century); the structural linguistics ( the early period of the 20th century); information theory ( 1950s-60s). Another aspect: Vygostkys study of utterance: motivation - thinking - inner words - meaning expressi
21、ng indirectly - meaning expressing directly(3) philosophy of science - a discipline concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implication of science. It appeared in the 20th century.p.14 (1) psycholinguistics - the study of the relationship between psychological structure and linguist
22、ic structure, concerning with nearly all fields of linguisticsThe 1.4 tells us that we should concern other related disciplines if we want to learn semantics well, for language is closely related to every aspect of our life.p.17 1. prima facie plausible - it seems the same that can be accepted reaso
23、nably 2. Cratylus - linguistic convention, a language which is regarded as dealing with word and the world object. (the same word with different objects). Thus, for many years, people would regard Cratylus as one kind of etymology or a special linguistics. ( the problem of naming and labeling)p.18 1
24、. the terms of “denotation” and “reference”- the relationship between them focuses on “refer in particular to” and “in a general sense” 2. the relation between “a word” and “a phrase”P.19 1. Word = Object Object which is experienced Object which to be sensed( object world and psychological world” wh
25、ich can produce entity words and concept words.)p.20 1. venus = morning star evening star ( the same object with different meanings) e.g. a woman = wife (relationship with husband) mother ( relationship with son or daughter) sister (relationship with her sitters or brothers) grandmother (relationshi
26、p with grandson or grand daughter) aunt (relationship with nephew or niece) 2. Pooh-Bah (普巴)：very important person Gilbert & Sullivan: The Mikado (1885), a comedy (御门), equal to Japanese emperor Title of Mikado: the lord high everything else (样样管大臣) “pooh” and “boh” mean “呸” in Chinese, an ironical
27、tone. Implication: Three terms can be considered such as “semantic filed”(语义场), “semantic distance” (语义距离)and “concept dependency”(概念依存). Trier (Germany) proposed The Theory of Semantic Field. (implicit transfer, explicit transfer) Semantic field - classification semantic field ordered semantic fiel
28、d relation semantic fieldantonymic semantic fieldpolarized semantic fieldpartly-negative semantic field (hot, warm, cool, cold)synonymic semantic field ( relation meaning : concept)(mental meaning: concept) Characteristics: Different Changeable Temporary Hierarchical 3. another difficulty: fuzzy cha
29、racteristic of meaning of an object ( hierarchical factor) Implication: The difference and argument between realist view(实体论, ontology ) and nominals view (唯名论, nominalism) Besides, Platos realism (唯实论)， universalism ( 共相论) Focus：objective and subjective.p.21 1. natural class and universal class: La
30、nguage A =/= Language B in meaning. Natural class - it refers to a complete set of sounds within a language that can be described by one or more phonetic features which they have in common. (p, t, k .) Universal class - it is common to all languages if dealing with linguistics.2. Malinowskis example
31、: words created for daily life3. Boas - A German- American anthropologist. He was titled as “the father of American anthropology”,” the father of modern anthropology”. His academic fields included physical anthropology, linguistics, archaeology (考古学) and cultural anthropology. His works or articles
32、for linguistics: The Mind of Primitive Man (1911) and On Alternating Sounds (1888). Contributions: created the distinction of phonemics(音位学) and phonetics; influenced on the field of study of Descriptive Linguistics.Boass example ( language of nationality and regionalization)Object has meaning, but h
