光谱仪设计原理Spectrograph Design Fundamentals.pdf
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光谱仪设计原理Spectrograph Design Fundamentals.pdf
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ThispageintentionallyleftblankSPECTROGRAPHDESIGNFUNDAMENTALSInrecentyearsenormouschangeshaveoccurredinthefieldofopticalspectrometry.Theclassicalspectrometerhasbecomeobsoleteandthespectrograph,incombin-ationwiththeCCDdetector,nowoffersavastlysuperiorapproach.Althoughthebasicopticalprinciplesremainunchangedthedesignconsiderationsareverydifferent,andinmanycasesmoredemanding.However,developmentsincomputerray-tracingandcomputer-aideddesignhavecopedwiththeseextraimpositionsandhaveallowedtheconstructionofanewgenerationofspectrographs.Thebookcoversthegeneralprinciplesofspectrographicdesign,andtheprac-ticalandengineeringaspectsofabroadrangeofspectrographsandspectrometers.Thisallowsthereadertomakeaninformedchoiceofinstrument.Itwillbeofparticularusewhennoneoftheimmensearrayofmanufacturedspectrographicandspectrometricinstrumentsissuitableforaspecialisedtask.Thebookdealswithmaterialsandmethodsofconstructionandincludessuggestionsforthechoiceofopticaltable,thedesignofslitmechanisms,andadjustablemirror,gratingandlensmounts,withsuggestionsforthealignmentandcalibrationofthefinishedinstrument.SpectrographDesignFundamentalsdescribesthedesignandconstructionofopticalspectrographs.Itwillbeavaluableresourceforacademicresearchers,graduatestudentsandprofessionalsinthefieldsofoptics,spectroscopyandopticalengineering.JohnJamesisanHonorarySeniorResearchFellowattheUniversityofGlasgowandaFellowoftheRoyalAstronomicalSociety.HeistheauthorofStudentsGuidetoFourierTransforms,alsopublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress,nowinitssecondedition.SPECTROGRAPHDESIGNFUNDAMENTALSJ.F.JAMESHonoraryResearchFellowUniversityofGlasgowCAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESSCambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown,Singapore,SoPauloCambridgeUniversityPressTheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UKFirstpublishedinprintformatISBN-13978-0-521-86463-3ISBN-13978-0-511-27403-9J.F.James20072007Informationonthistitle:
www.cambridge.org/9780521864633Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexceptionandtotheprovisionofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN-100-511-27403-3ISBN-100-521-86463-1CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracyofurlsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYorkwww.cambridge.orghardbackeBook(EBL)eBook(EBL)hardbackContentsPrefacepageixAcknowledgementsxi1Abriefhistoryofspectroscopy12Therelevantregionsoftheelectromagneticspectrum62.1Thelimitsofopticalspectrography83Geometricaloptics103.1Raysandwavefronts103.2Instrumentaloptics113.3Centredsystems123.4Gaussianoptics123.5Opticallayout203.6Apertures,stops,fields,irisesandpupils203.7Raybundles233.8TheHelmholtzLagrangeinvariants233.9Surfacebrightness253.10Blackbodyradiation254Opticalaberrations284.1TheSeidelaberrations294.2Zero-orderaberration294.3First-orderaberrations294.4Theorems354.5Aberrationcoefficientsformirrors374.6Theachromaticdoublet395Fouriertransforms:
abriefrevision415.1Fouriertransforms415.2Theorems425.3Convolutions425.4TheWienerKhinchinetheorem45vviContents5.5Usefulfunctions455.6Moretheorems495.7Aliasing516Physicalopticsanddiffraction526.1Fraunhoferdiffraction526.2Two-dimensionalaperturesandobliqueincidence557Theprismspectrograph577.1Introduction577.2Thetraditionalprismspectrograph577.3Thefocalcurvetheorem597.4TheLittrowmounting597.5ThePellinBrocaprism607.6Focalisolation618Theplanegratingspectrograph638.1Theshapeofamonochromaticlinespectrum638.2Blazingofgratings678.3Apodising688.4Orderoverlapandfreespectralrange698.5Gratingghostsandperiodicerrors708.6Thecompletegratingequation728.7Differentialdispersion768.8Mountingconfigurations769Theconcavegratingspectrograph899.1TheRowlandgrating899.2Theconcavegratingasaspectrograph929.3Theconcavegratingasamonochromator969.4TheaberrationsoftheRowlandgrating979.5Practicaldetailsofdesign9810Theinterferencespectrograph10110.1Thephaseangle10110.2TheFabryPerotetalonspectrograph10210.3FabryPerottheory10210.4TheFabryPerotmonochromator10410.5TheFabryPerotCCDspectrograph10810.6Fore-optics11010.7Referencefringes11110.8Extractionofthespectrum11110.9Choiceoftheresolutionandgap11210.10ThecrossedFabryPerotspectrograph113Contentsvii11Themultiplexspectrometer11411.1TheprinciplesofFourierspectrometry11411.2Themultiplexadvantage11712Detectors12012.1Silverhalidephotography12112.2Elementaryelectronicdetectors12212.3Detectorswithspatialresolution12312.4Exposurelimitations12412.5CCDsoftware12512.6CCDcalibration12612.7Spectrographcalibration12613Auxiliaryoptics12813.1Fore-optics12813.2Theastronomicaltelescopeasfore-optics13013.3Focalreducers13213.4Schmidt-cameraspectrography13413.5Scatteredlightandbaffling13413.6Absorptioncells13613.7Fibreopticalinput13714Opticaldesign13914.1Firststeps13914.2Initiallayout13914.3Thedrawingboard14014.4Computerraytracing14014.5Refinementoftheopticaldesign14114.6Requirementsofaray-tracingprogram14415Mechanicaldesignandconstruction15015.1Theopticallayout15015.2Opticalmaterials16215.3Transparentopticalmaterials16315.4Reflectors16315.5Metalsforconstruction16515.6Othermaterials16716Calibration16816.1Sensitivitycalibration16816.2Wavelengthcalibration16916.3Smallspectralshiftsandradial-velocitymeasurement17016.4Absorptionmeasurements170viiiContents17Thealignmentofaspectrograph17217.1Theopticalalignment17217.2Thefocus173Appendix1Opticalaberrations175Appendix2Wavelengthsofspectrallinesforcalibration179Appendix3TheevolutionofaFabryPerotinterferencespectrograph183Appendix4Thecommoncalibrationcurveinsilverhalidespectrophotometry186Bibliography187Index188PrefaceThirty-eightyearsago,togetherwithmycolleaguethelateRobertSternberg,IwroteabookentitledTheDesignofOpticalSpectrometers.Itdescribedthestateoftheartasitwasatthattimeafterthegreatadvanceswhichhadcomeintheprevioustenyears,anditwasintendedforpeoplewhowishedtobuildaspectrometertailoredtoaspecificpurpose,whereperhapsoneofthecommercialdesignswasinadequate,unsuitable,unnecessarilycumbersome,orexpensive.Whenatlastthetimecametoconsideraneweditionitbecameclearthatthetechnologyhadchangedsomuchthattheclassicalopticalspectrometer,inthesenseofmonochromator,wasmoreorlessobsoleteandthatlaterdevelopmentssuchasthedesktopcomputerandthecharge-coupleddevicehadrestoredthespectrographtoitsformereminence.Therestorationinnowayannulledtheopticalimprovementsoftheprevious30yearsbutnewconstraintsposednewproblemsindesign.Theseproblemsarenowsolvedandthesolutionsarepresentedhere.Thefundamentalsofopticaldesignhavenotchanged,buttheconstraintsarenowalldifferent,andsuchpropertiesasflatfieldsareneededwherebeforetheycouldbelargelyignored;andfocalratiosmatteragainwhenpreviouslywecoulddesigneverythingsothatsuchtriviaassphericalaberrationandcomacouldbeneglected.Thereis,asalways,agaptobebridgedbetweentheeleganttheorypresentedintheundergraduatetextbooksandthepracticalspectroscopicinstrumentstandingonthelaboratorybenchorboltedtotheCassegrainfocusofanastronomicaltele-scope.Thegapispartlyinthelimitationsimposedbythecurseofnon-linearityingeometricalopticsandthecontumaciousaberrationsitproduces,andpartlyinthesometimesobstinatephysicalpropertiesofthematerialsofconstruction.Asalwaysinscientificinstrumentmaking,theartisinknowingwhatmustbepreciseandexactandwhatcanbeleftgohangatacrudelevel.Therearetricksinthistradejustasinanyother.Thetraditionalengineersdescriptionofaphysicistissomeonewhodesignsaboxthatmustbescrewedtogetherfromtheinside.(Thereisaparallelphysicistsdefinitionofanengineer:
someonewho,whenaskedwhatixxPrefaceisthreetimesfour?
willgetoutaslideruleandanswerabouttwelve.)Thereisanelementoftruthinthisandsomeofthehintsinthesepagesmayhelptorefutethecalumny.Thisworkisthusintendedforthenewgenerationofresearcherswhodesirehighefficiencyinaninstrumenttailoredtotheirownparticularpurpose,andwhohaveaccesstoamechanicalworkshopofmoderatesizewhereaninstrumentoftheirdesigncanbeconstructed.Therehasbeennoattempttoventureintothenewfieldsofopticalresonantscatteringspectroscopy,tunablelaserspectroscopyorotherspecialisedtechniquesandsothebookisdirectedtochemists,astronomersandaeronomersasmuchastophysicists.Manufacturedspectrographsareinnowaydeficient,butarenecessarilycom-promises,bothinperformanceandcost,andareoftenintendedforteachingordedicatedtoaroutinetasksuchassampleanalysis.Aspeciallydesignedinstru-menthasnodifficultyinexcellingthemforaparticularinvestigation,particularlyinacademicresearchfieldswherenewareasarebeingexploredandwherenoestablishedtechnologyyetexists.Itistothebasicopticaldesignandconstructionofsuchindividualinstrumentsthatthisbookisdedicated.Ialsotaketheopportunityofacknowledgingmylategoodfriendsandcolleagues,DrH.J.J.Braddick,RobSternbergandLarryMertz,fromwhomIlearnedsomuch.AcknowledgementsManyindividualsandinstitutionshavecontributedtotheresearchfundsandfacil-itieswhichyieldedtheknowledgeandexperiencewrittendownhere.Chiefamongthesearethefollowing:
TheRoyalSocietyPaulInstrumentFundfornumerousdevelopmentgrantsRoyalSocietyResearc
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