1、新编简明英语语言学教程重点笔记赶考秘籍新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) coll
2、ects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them. The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics. phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning morphology(形态学): how morphemes
3、(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolin
4、guistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modern
5、linguistics speech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguistics langue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure-forefather of modern linguistics competence(语言能力ideal users knowledge of rules of his language)
6、and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomsky traditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussures book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicatio
7、n. LAD: Language Acquisition Device -Chomsky Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性)
8、: Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)-higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability
9、 to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech is more basic/primary. The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the pho
10、nic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics Speech organs: pha
11、ryngeal; cavity-throat; oral cavity-mouth; nasal cavity-nose IPA: 国际音标 diacritics: 变音符 broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study) vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) sto
12、ps(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/ten
13、se vowels-short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nat
14、ure, interested in all the speech sounds A phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones) a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning A phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value) not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in
15、a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme. Rules in phonology: Sequential rules(序列规则)-rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Assimilation rule(同化规则)-a
16、ssimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音) e.g. green, scream Deletion rule(省略规则)-e.g. designation Suprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.
17、 stress(重音)-word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. import (n.) import (v.) / blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)-pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)-English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall
18、 tone E.g. Thats not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be addednouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smalles
19、t free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one-affix)3.4 V-teach N Af-er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -c
20、eive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweet Word Formations: compounding, blendin
21、g, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categoriesword-level categories: maj
22、or lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)-Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories-Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a words category: meaning,
23、inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A words category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of mo
24、re than one word usually contain: head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule-special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a q
25、ualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule: XP(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”) XX *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phra
26、se elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree word heads N V A / P complementizers (Cs)words introducing the sentence complement complement clausesentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP) matrix clauseconstruction in which the CP embeded嵌
27、入 As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, about modifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers. AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+V
28、s): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully read The Expanded XP rule: XP(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: SNP VP - Inflp (=S)NP Infl VP -Infl can be taken by an abstract category encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special r
29、ule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP. within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl t
30、o C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train _ arrive? NP VP Det N Infl V the train will arriveThe XP ruleD structuretransformationsS structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CP P57 Figure 4-1
31、6 P58 Figure 4-18move and constraints on transformations move : general rule for all the movement rules : any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of m
32、eaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. The limitations of this theory are obvious. Theres verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns. The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through th
