1、treat language as a systemdefine the units of languagestudy the relations among units and the rules of combinationSynchronic studystudy the language system at a given periodtreat the system as being staticconcentrate on one language and on the speakers knowledge of the languageDiachronic studystudy
2、the language systems in different periodsconcentrate on how languages changeoften needs to study several different languagesLangue vs. parole（language vs. speech）the system of languagea set of social conventionsexists in the mind of each speakerlearned by each speakerall speakers have the same syste
3、mmore or less fixeda speaker is powerless to create it or modify itactual speechan individual act of the will and the intelligencea speaker has freedom in uttering sentences, is free to choose what to sayancillary/accidentalThe speeches of two speakers may be rather differentCompetence: -the ideal k
4、nowledge of the speaker -a property of the mind of each speaker competence = knowledge of grammarPerformance -actual realization of this knowledge in utterance -influenced by psychological & social factorsTheoretical linguistics （理论语言学）PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemantics*Pragmatics*Discourse
5、 Analysis （会话分析）*Text analysis （语篇学）Chapter 2 Language2.1. Definition of language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.2. Design features of language: （1） duality （双重性）: language is composed of 2 systems. system of sounds: meaningless, limited number system
6、of meanings:meaningful, relatively unlimited（2）. Arbitrariness （任意性） -The combination of the sound and meaning of linguistic symbols is a social convention. -there is no necessary or intrinsic connection between the symbols,and the meaning of the symbols（3）. Productivity （生成性） -Productivity refers t
7、o the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences. -No one will have difficulty in understanding the sentence: “the terrorists will bomb the railway of Tokoy tomorrow.” -But the communication systems of other anim
8、als are not productive. （4）. Displacement （移位性）-Displacement is the property of language that enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place.people can talk about things present,absent,in the past, in the future.（Queen Elizabeth ）（5）.cultural transmission（文化传递性） -Language a
9、nd culture are closely related to each other. -Language is passed on from generation to generation by learning rather by instinct. -Language is culturally transmitted.2.3. Functions of language（what language is used for）（1）.phatic: -Phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosph
10、ere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. -Greeting,farewells, and comments on the weather server the function. Such as, “How are you?”, “A nice day, isnt it?”（2）. Directive -When language is used to get the hearer do something,it serves a directive function.
11、 -Most imperative sentences are associated with this function. Such as in “come in, please.”, “Drop in any time you like.”（3）. Informative - Language serves an informative function when it is used to to give information about facts, tell what the speaker believes. - Most declarative sentences, as we
12、ll as rhetorical questions are used to serve this function.（4）. Interrogative -When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function. -All the questions that expect answers serve this function. Such as , “what is your name?” or “Are you able to speak Japanese?（5）.
13、 Expressive -Expressive function is the use of language to reveal something abut the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. -In expressive function, language is used to evaluate and assert the speakers attitudes. -Some ejaculations are the examples ,such as, “oh, my God!” or “The man is leaving ,I w
14、ish to God he would go!（6）. Evocative -Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer. -Evocative function aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry, or please the hearer. -Jokes, advertising, propaganda are used to serve the evocative function of language. Such
15、 as, Coke refreshes you like no other can. If it is got to be clean, its got to be tide.（7）. Performative -When language is used to “do things”, , to perform actions, it serves the performative function. -With the sentences being uttered, the act can be performed, such as, “I declare the exam is can
16、celled.” or I declare the class is over.”Chapter 3 Phonetics （语音学）3.1. Definition of Phonetics （语音学）: Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds Deals with speech soundsConcerns all possible sounds humans can make 3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:Articulatory （发音） Phonetics:the stud
17、y of the production of speech sound.Acoustic （声学） Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.Auditory （听觉） Phonetics:the perception of speech sounds.the perception of speech sounds3.3 Speech OrgansLips （labia唇）Teeth （dentes齿）Tooth-ridge （alveoli齿龈） Hard palate （
18、硬腭）Soft palate （velum软腭）Uvula （小舌）Tip of tongue （舌尖） Blade of tongue （舌面） Front of tongue （舌前部）Back of tongue （舌后部）Tongue root （舌根）Pharynx （声门）Vocal cords （声带）Nasal cavity （鼻腔）Oral cavity （口腔）Epiglottis （会厌）Tongue （lingua） （舌）3.4. Phonetic transcription （注音）A sound may have many variationsExample 1:
19、p in peak is aspirated php in speak is unaspirated p= or simply pExample 2:l in lead is clear ll in deal is dark Symbols for such more specific sounds are called diacritics （变音符）See胡壮麟, 语言学教程, p. 38Narrow transcription& Broad transcriptionNarrow transcription:use more, specific symbols,i.e. diacrati
20、csBroad transcription:Use ordinary symbolsExample: helpBroad transcription: helpNarrow transcription: hephCommonly used diacratics: 。. 3.5. The English soundsConsonants （辅音）Obstruction of air flowE.g. b, k, d, +voiced-voicedVowels（元音）No air obstructionE.g. i e au, 3.5.1 Consonants （辅音）1. Place of ar
21、ticulationBilabials （双唇音）Labiodentals （唇齿音）Dentals （齿音）Alveolars （齿龈音）Postalveolars （上齿龈）Palatals （上腭音）Retroflex （卷舌音）Velars （软腭音）Glottals （喉音）2. Manner of articulationStops/Plosives （闭塞爆破）Fricatives （摩擦音）Affricates （塞擦音）Laterals （侧音）Approximants （近音）Nasals （鼻音） 3.5.2 Vowelscriteria （parameters）of v
22、owel description:the position of highest part of the tongue:front, central, backthe height of tongue raising: high, middle, low （the openness of the mouth: close,semi-close,semi-open,open）the shape of the lips （the degree of lip-rounding ） : rounded, unroundedthe length or tenseness of the vowel : t
23、ense vs. lax or long vs. short Consonants （辅音）Vowels（元音）More vowelsLax vowels （松元音） i ，e，u， ， Tense vowels （紧元音）ei， i:，u:， :，a:Round vowels （圆唇音） u:， u， : ， ，Unround vowels（非圆唇音） ei， i:， i ，e， ， ，a:Diphthongs （双元音）Chapter 4 PHONOLOGY（音系学）4.1 The phonic medium of language （语言的语音媒介） phonic medium of l
24、anguage（语言的语音媒介）; speech sounds（言语语音）.4.2 Phonetics（语音学）4.2.1 What is phonetics? Definition: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related po
25、ints of view. articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）：how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves（声波）, the physical means by which sounds are
26、 transmitted through the air from one person to another.spectrographs（频谱仪）4.2.2 Organs of speech（发音器官）The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）- the throat, the oral cavity（口腔）- the mouth the nasal cavity（鼻腔）- the nose1. lips唇 2. teeth牙齿3. teeth ridge （alveolus）齿龈 4. hard palate硬腭5. soft palate （velum） 软腭 6. uvula小舌7. tip of tongue舌尖 8. blade of tongue舌面9. back of tongue 舌后部 10. vocal cords声带11
