1、Chapter Three Lexicon,1.What is word?,A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers,whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.A vague definition.Three senses are involved in defining“word”,none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.,1.1 T
2、hree senses of“word”,A physical unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks,egPhonological:Orthographic:It is wonderful.Three words are recognized.,However,in casual speech or writing,it often becomes:Phonological:Orthographic:Its wonderful.Are they two words or three?,A
3、 set of forms:walk,walks,walking,walkedHow many words are there?I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.How many times did the word“have”occur?,A lexical item or a lexeme,A lexical item is an entry in a dictionary.A lexeme WRITE includes all of its grammatical forms:write,writes,w
4、riting,wrote,written,A grammatical unit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeProblem:blackboard,1.2 Identification of words,Stability:stable linguistic units.chairman,but not*manchairRelative uninterruptibility:though we recognize three components in the word disappointment,we cannot pause and add anothe
5、r component in between,as in*disinterestappointment.But we can add another word between words:Paul,(John)and Mary.,A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself,eg-Is Jane coming tonight?-Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.,1.3 Classification of words,Variable vs.Invari
6、able Words:Variable words:write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.Invariable words:since,when,seldom,through,etc.,Grammatical vs.Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words:conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/Content words:nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.,Closed-class vs.Open-class W
7、ords:Closed-class words:New members cannot normally be added,eg pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.Open-class words:New members can be added,eg nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.,Word class:known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,p
8、ronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Some new terms in word class:Particle:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”,“look back”,etc.Auxiliary:do,haveModal verbs:can,will,may,must,etc.,Pro-forms:substitutes for other terms.Pronoun:he,she,I,they,everyonePro-adjectiv
9、e:Your car is red.So is his.Pro-verb:He speaks English better than he did.Pro-adverb:He hopes to win and I hope so too.Pro-locative:He went there.,Determiner:all the articles,demonstratives,and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.As many as three determiners may be used in each
10、 case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.,Predeterminers:all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters;double,twice,three times;such,what(exclamative)Central determiners:the;this,these,that,those;PossP;we,us;you;which,what(relative),what(interrogative);a,another,some,any,no,either,neith
11、er;each,enough,much,more,most,less;a few,a littlePostdeterminers:every;many,several,few,little;one,two,three;(a)dozen,*their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girls,2.Morphology,Morphology:the study of word-formation,or the internal structure of words,or the rules by which words ar
12、e formed from smaller components-morphemes.,2.1 Morphemes,The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.,2.2 Ty
13、pes of morphemes,Free vs.Bound morphemes:Free morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves,eg boy,girl,table,nation.Bound morphemes:those that cannot occur alone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.,Root:the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,eg friend as in
14、unfriendliness.Roots may be free:those that can stand by themselves,eg black+board;nation+-al;orbound:those that cannot stand by themselves,eg-ceive in receive,perceive,conceive.,Affix:the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Normally divided into prefix(dis-,un-)an
15、d suffix(-en,-ify).,Base:a morpheme to which an affix is added,egfriendrootbasefriendlyroot/base+suffixbaseunfriendlyprefix+basebaseunfriendlinessbase+suffixbase?,Stem:a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,eg friend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.Inflectio
16、n:grammatical endings,eg plural,tense,comparative,etc.Derivation:combination of a base and an affix to form a new word,eg friend+-ly friendly.,2.3 Word-formation,2.3.1 Inflection,Nominal forms:boys,boysVerb forms:wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverb forms:smaller,smallest,2.3.2 Compounding,Two or mo
17、re free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerb compounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjective compounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfreePreposition compounds:into,throughout,Endocentric&exocentric,Endocentric:one element serves as the head,the relation
18、ship of“a kind of”;egself-control:a kind of controlarmchair:a kind of chairExocentric:there is no head,so not a relationship of“a kind of something”,egscarecrow:not a kind of crowbreakneck:not a kind of neck,Written forms of compounds,Solid:blackboard,teapot,bodyguardHyphenated:wedding-ring,wave-len
19、gthOpen:coffee table,washing machineFree variation:businessman,business-man,business manwinebottle,wine-bottle,wine bottleno one,no-one,noone,2.3.3 Derivation,Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospitalize,discardNA:friendly,delightful,speechlessVN:worker,employee,inhabitantVA:acceptable,adorableAN:rapidnes
20、s,rapidityAV:deafen,sweetenAdjAdv:exactly,quickly,Class-preserving:NN:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletVV:disobey,unfastenAA:grayish,irrelevant,3.Lexical change,Formation of new wordsPhonological changeMorphosyntactic changeSemantic changeOrthographic change,3.1 Word-formation through lexical change,3.1.1 I
21、nvention/CoinageMostly brand names:Kodak,Coke,nylon,Xerox,Bandit,Lycra,3.1.2 Blending,transfer+resistortransistorsmoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunchbrunchmodulator+demodulatormodemdance+exercisedancerciseadvertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainmentinformation+comm
22、ercialinfomercial,3.1.3 Abbreviations,ClippingBack-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),exam(ination),hippo(potamus),lab(oratory),piano(forte),reg(ulation)sFore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake.Fore-and-aft clippings:(in
23、)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).,AcronymAIDS,Aids:Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeASAP:as soon as possibleCD-ROM:compact disc read-only memorydink(y):double income,no kidsWASP:white Anglo-Saxon protestant,InitialismAI:artificial intelligencea.s.a.p.:as soon as possibleECU:European Currency UnitHIV:human
24、 immunodeficiency virusPC:personal computerPS:postscriptRSVP:rpondez sil vous plait(please reply in French),3.1.4 Back-formation,burgle,commentate,edit,peddle,scavenge,sculpt,swindleair-condition,babysit,brainstorm,brainwash,browbeat,dry-clean,house-hunt,housekeep,sightsee,tape-recordarticulate,assa
25、ssinate,coeducate,demarcate,emote,intuit,legislate,marinate,orate,vaccinate,valuate,diagnose diagnosis enthuse enthusiasm laze lazyliaise liaison reminisce reminiscence statistic statistics televise television,3.1.5 Analogical creation,From irregular to regular:work:wrought workedbeseech:besought be
26、seechedslay:slew slayed?go:went goed?,3.1.6 Borrowing,French:administration,parliament,public,revenue,tax;court,crime,defendant,judge,jury,justice,pardon,sue;army,enemy,guard,officer,peace,soldier,war;clergy,faith,prayer,religion,sermon,service;coat,costume,dress,fashion,frock,jewel,lace;boil,dinner
27、,feast,fry,roast,supper,toast;bargain,butcher,customer,grocer,money,price,value;art,college,music,poet,prose,story,study,Latin:admit,client,conviction,custody,discuss,equal,index,infinite,intellect,library,medicine,minor,opaque,prosecute,pulpit,scribe,scripture,simile,testimonyGreek:acme,bathos,cata
28、strophe,cosmos,criterion,idiosyncrasy,kudos,misanthrope,pathos,pylon,therm,Spanish and Portuguese:anchovy,armada,banana,barbecue,cafeteria,cannibal,canoe,canyon,cargo,cask,chilli(or chili),chocolate,cigar,cocaine,cockroach,cocoa,desperado,embargo,guitar,mosquito,negro,port(wine),potato,ranch,renegad
29、e,sherry,siesta,tango,tank,tobacco,tomato,vanilla,Italian:aria,artichoke,bandit,broccoli,cameo,carnival,casino,concerto,duet,finale,ghetto,graffiti(singular graffito),incognito,inferno,influenza,larva,libretto,macaroni,maestro,mafia,malaria,paparazzi(singular paparazzo),piano,pizza,ravioli,regatta,r
30、eplica,scampi,solo,soprano,spaghetti,studio,umbrella,vendetta,vermicelli,volcano,Dutch:apartheid,booze,boss,brandy,buoy,coleslaw,commando,cookie,cranberry,cruise,deck,decoy,dock,dollar,dope,easel,excise,freight,furlough,gin,kit,knapsack,landscape,luck,onslaught,pickle,reef,sketch,skipper,slim,smuggl
31、e,snap,snip,trek,waffle,wagon,yacht,Hebrew:amen,babel,cabbala(or cabala,kabbala,kabala),camel,cherub,jubilee,manna,messiah,sabbath,satan,seraph,shibbolethArabic:admiral,albatross,alchemy,alcohol,alcove,algebra,alkali,almanac,amber,assassin,candy,cipher(or cypher),harem,hazard,lemon,magazine,nadir,sa
32、fari,sherbet,sofa,syrup,zenith,zero,Indian:bungalow,cashmere,chutney,cot,curry,dinghy,ginger,guru,juggernaut,jungle,jute,loot,mango,pariah,polo,punch,pundit,pyjamas(or pajamas),shampoo,swastika,thug,toddy,veranda(or verandah),yogaChinese:chop suey,chow,chow mein,ginseng,gung-ho,ketchup(or catchup or
33、 catsup),kung fu,tea,tofu(via Japanese),typhoon,3.1.7 Types of loan words,Loanwords:au pair,encore,coup detat,kungfu,sputnikLoanblendcoconut:coco(Spanish)+nut(English)Chinatown:China(Chinese)+town(English)Loanshiftbridge:meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte,Loan translation,or calquefree verse L verse libreblack humor Fr humour noirfound object Fr objet trouv,3.2 Phonological change,
