1、English Euphemism and Its Social Influence浅谈英语委婉语及其社会影响浅谈英语委婉语及其社会影响Abstract Language communication is an important method to maintain social relationship, so people often use the indirect or pleasant expressions in the place of those considered unpleasant, rude or offensive in communication. It is
2、not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. It reflects some kinds of corresponding cultural traditions. This paper mainly focuses on the ways of expression, the major function and the social influence of euphemism in English. And the first part el
3、aborates upon the different expressions of euphemism in English, divided into four parts: figure of speech, semantic method, the variety of pronunciation and spelling form and grammar. And then it makes study the appliance of euphemism on three functions: avoidance, courtesy, disguise in social life
4、, and discusses the positive and negative influences of euphemism. To know these could help us to understand the mode of thinking, social values, moral concepts, and cultural traditions in English-speaking country, and could improve our language communicative ability. Key words: Euphemism, applicati
5、on, social influence, positive, negative【摘 要】 语言交际是人类以维系社会关系的重要手段，因而人们在交际中通常避免使用引起双方不快从而损害双方关系的语言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法来表达思想，交流信息，它不仅是种语言现象，而且是社会现象和文化现象。委婉语言体现了相应的社会文化传统。本文主要阐述了英语委婉语的构成方法以及它的社会影响，并着重从修辞手段，语义手段，构词手段及语法手段对委婉语言作了较全面的分析，并对委婉语在交际中的语用功能和表达方式做了一些探讨，从委婉语的“避讳”功能，“礼貌”功能和“掩饰”功能三个方面探讨了委婉语在社会生活中的运用，了解委婉语在
6、运用中的积极作用和消极作用, 有助于我们更深入的了解英语国家人们的思维方式、社会价值观、道德观以及文化风俗，对于提高自身言语交际功能是十分必要的。【关键词】 委婉语； 运用； 社会影响; 积极；消极1. Introduction Euphemism is originally from Greek, meaning, “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. Its definition in Oxford English Dictionary is “(exampl
7、e of the) use of pleasant, mild, or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”The appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. When giving up a taboo word, people will find another new one to take the place of it, which creates a e
8、uphemism. The other aims to avoid offensiveness during the communication. It is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term. In English language, euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. In order to achieve the aim of “tabo
9、o”, it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in order to achieve the aim of “politeness”, it is used to avoid the inelegant things, which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. It is not only a linguistic ph
10、enomenon, but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. Euphemism in use differs from person to person, from profession to profession, even from class to class , Thats why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. T
11、o grasp the English euphemism can not only help us open our eyes, but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. This paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in English and to make acknowledge of its social influence, which could help us use euphemism in a correct way.2. Ways to exp
12、ress euphemism2.1. Figure of speech2.1.1. Metonymy.That is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “Passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. It can be divided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container.
13、 For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “liking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “limb” refers to “leg”. For some special occasions, the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an o
14、ld hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example, “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. It can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance, “poppy” is a kind of flower, but it also refer
15、s to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example, “hellow” is a greeting word, and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to r
16、eplace the objects. For example, “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleons head portrait. “Borstal” is a name of countryside in Kent in Britain. It can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”.Sometimes, some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradu
17、ally forget their euphemistic identities. They are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. For instance, take above-mentioned “poppy”, now if you look up this word in the dictionary, you can find the meaning of “opium”, it has lost its euphemistic function. And, if y
18、ou do not know the background, you can not know the meaning of “Napoleon” and “Borstal”. Therefore, we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it.2.1.2. MetaphorTo use me
19、taphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example, wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law, which, though conducted by rules, does not meddle unduly with a gentlemans private affairs. (O. Henry, The Cop and the Anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”4,
20、 Many euphemisms for “death” were created by way of metaphor, such as going to his long home, to be home and free, to go to sleep, to sleep the long (or eternal, never-ending) sleep, to rest in peace, to be at rest, to go to Heaven (or Paradise), to join ones ancestors, to be gathered to ones father
21、s, to join the immortals. More examples are: agedsunset years, to be poorto be pinched, to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) to deflower; to degenerateto go astray; breastmilk bottles; catameniathe red flag; to be pregnantto be on the nest; the money of briberygrease; to
22、 bribeto grease somebodys palm; handcuffsbracelets.2.1.3PersonificationPeoples names are often used to replace taboo words. For example, “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century, it was cal
23、led “ my aunt Jones”, “Mrs. Jones”, “Sir John”, “Sir Harry”, “the Henry”, while in 20th century, it was called “jakes”, “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. The first letter can be written in small letter. People just use it as a common noun. In fact, they have lost the
24、euphemistic function. There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. 4) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) Little sister is here. 6) Ive got painters in. 7) the cardinal has c
25、ome.2.1.4.AnalogyIn the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy, which makes the humble name more elegant5 , For example, “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. It is borrowed from French word “chef de cuisine”. “Beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”;
26、 “mortician” refers to “undertaker”. There also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon, beauty parlour, and stylist parlour. 2.1.5. EllipsisThat is to omit the offensive words while speaking, such as to be expecting (a baby), to have (sexual) relations with somebody, to take precau
27、tions (against pregnancy), to depart (from this world). Of course, such phrases should be put into a certain context, which can express the meaning of euphemisms.2.1.6. PeriphrasisIt is an expression of beating around the bush. Though it is a muddled acting, its aim is to avoid offending others, and
28、 to be more polite6. If someone asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment, he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. Such way of speaking is humorous, sweet and agreeable, such as to dieto close ones eyes, to expire, to breathe ones last; to defecate and to urinateto wash ones
29、hands, to ease or relieve oneself, to do ones business; to courtto go walking; to be pregnantto eat for two; lavatorywashroom, cloakroom; fartwind from behind; womens underclothesunmentionables; trousersnether garments; ask you to go awaycall your carriage for you; to dismissto give somebody the sac
30、k; to be in prisonto live at the governments expense. Teachers often use this expression to avoid the students and their parents awkwardness. For example, laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and st
31、andards of fair play”; “lies” is called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them
32、democratically”; “dirty” is called “ be lack of proper health habits”.7 2.2.Semantic method2.2.1. SynonymFor example, “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”,“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . And “mad” is replaced by “crazy”, “insane”, and “lunatic”. Such euphemism aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term. 2.2.2. NegationSuch euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning, and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and
