1、英语语言学教程胡壮麟版英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. What is language“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no in
2、trinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas e
3、tc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can o
4、nly learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining propertie
5、s of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeabilityArbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meani
6、ngs and sounds.Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the abilit
7、y to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in ones native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utte
8、rances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to re
9、al and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each s
10、peaker.Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.Phatic function: The “phatic
11、function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.Directive function: The “direc
12、tive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.”Informative function: Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of de
13、clarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.Expressive funct
14、ion: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.Evocative function: The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry
15、 or please.Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.4. What is linguistic“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. In short, linguistics studies the general pr
16、inciples whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of lang
17、uage at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic study vs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some poi
18、nt of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn t
19、o speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not
20、have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for
21、 “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. (4). langue vs. par
22、oleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an
23、individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, . to discover the re
24、gularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language users knowledge of th
25、e rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance
26、is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.(6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the poten
27、tial-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual l
28、inguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phonetics is phonetics？“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especi
29、ally those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech s
30、ound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearers point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve
31、 and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system makin
32、g use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulation It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. 4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. 5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patter
