1、 classification; social function 浅谈英语委婉语的构成方式、分类及社会功能【摘 要】 委婉语是人类语言中的一种普遍现象，其存在的历史相当悠久。任何事物的出现总有其原因，委婉语当然也不例外。委婉语的出现是与语言禁忌息息相关的。英语委婉语在交际中起着十分重要的作用，因此值得深入的学习和研究。本文主要从英语委婉语的构成方式、分类和社会功能来进行阐述。英语委婉语的构成方式多种多样包括语音手段、语法手段、修辞手段等。论文还试图根据英语委婉语的内容对其应用范围进行归类。英语委婉语涉及生活的方方面面，既有日常生活中的委婉语又有教育和法律委婉语以及政治委婉语与商业和工业领域委婉
2、语。从其诞生之日起，英语委婉语就肩负着社会润滑剂这项重任。可以预见如果没有委婉语人际交往中将会增加许多摩擦和矛盾。英语委婉语具有多样化的功能。除了避讳，它还具有礼貌、求雅、掩饰等功能。【关键字】 英语委婉语;构成方式;分类;社会功能1. IntroductionEuphemisms have existed for a long time. The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek word “Euphemia”. The prefix “eu-” means “good”, the stem “pheme” means “speech” or “sa
3、ying”. Many people have defined euphemism. Here are some of the definitions.（1） “（example of the） use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”1（2） “a polite word or expression that you use instead of a more direct one to avoid shocking or upsetting som
4、eone.”2 （3） “a less direct word used instead of one that is harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.”3 （4） “Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; Expression thus substituted.”4（5） “a polite word or expression that people use to
5、talk about something unpleasant or embarrassing, such as death and sex.”5（6） “A euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: Either ones own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience, or of some third party.”6Just as the above
6、 definitions state, some harsh, blunt, unpleasant or offensive things in life should not be stated directly and truthfully in certain occasions. Under these circumstances, some better-sounding names should be used. Euphemism is a part of human language as well as a psychological and cultural phenome
7、non of different nations. The usage of English euphemism reflects ethics and behavioral code of people in English-speaking countries. From the day it came into being, euphemism functions as the lubricator of communication. Thus it enables people to live in harmony and makes conversations smooth and
8、successful. The following parts hold a discussion on the origin, formation, classification and social function of English euphemisms.2. The origin of English euphemisms“Euphemism is the linguistic reflection of social psychology and a product of social and cultural environment.”7 “In western nations
9、, the usage of euphemisms in early times originated from religion or admires and dread of gods.”8Its earlier emergence had a close relation to language taboos and religion.In ancient society, as the level of productivity and science was very low, people failed to explain the essence of some natural
10、phenomena such as lightening and thunder. They came to believe that there were some supernatural powers, or the existence of devils and gods that controlled their lives and even the whole world. They dared not to mention the names of the devils and gods directly, just as the idiom goes “Speak of the
11、 devil and he appears.” Thus, language taboos came into being. To find a solution to this problem, people used other names that is, euphemisms to substitute the names of those things they feared in circumstances that they had to speak of them. Because of the usage of euphemisms, people felt that the
12、y were somewhat distant from what they were afraid of and their safety, happiness, health and good luck were guaranteed. Though it is a rather old religious custom, it still exerts a strong influence on modern western nations. As we all know, the majority of the population of English-speaking countr
13、ies believes in God consciously or unconsciously, and they think that God exists everywhere and has unlimited power. Words related to God and religion can only be used in religious ceremonies. Since the name of God is regarded as the avatar of God itself, people usually use “the Lord” to replace it.
14、 Besides, Jesus is euphemized as “Gee”, “jeepers”, “jiminy”, “Cricket” or “Criminet”; and “the deuce”, “the dickens” or “Old Nick” substitutes “the Devil”.3. The formation of English euphemismsVarious devices are employed to form English euphemisms.3.1 Phonetic devicesPhonetic distortion is a common
15、 means to form English euphemism. For example, People use “Gad”, “Goodness”, “Gosh”, and “Golly” to replace “God” and use “cripes” to replace “Christ” in order to show respect. Assonance is another important means to form euphemisms. For example, “ a coffin shop is euphemized as a coffee shop, for c
16、offin and coffee have similarity in sound.”9 Rhyming slang is also employed to form English euphemisms. Slang is very informal and has local color. It was originally used by working people. Now, some slang words have been accepted in Standard English and used as euphemisms. For example, “Bristol cit
17、ies” is for “breasts”; “grasp and grunt” is rhyming slang for “cunt” and “tea leaf” is for “thief”.3.2 Spelling devices3.2.1 AbbreviationsSome euphemisms are abbreviations. For example, “VD” is for “venereal disease”; “BO” is for “body odor”; “BM” substitutes “bowel movement”; “WC” substitutes “wate
18、r closet”; “OD” replaces “to take an overdose”, etc.3.2.2 Reinterpretation of initialsReinterpretation of initials is also used to form English euphemisms. For example, “hot and cold” is a roundabout expression for “heroin and cocaine”. “hot” and “heroin” have the same initial “h” and “cold” and “co
19、caine” have the same initial “c”, but “hot and cold” sounds less accurate and indirect.3.3 vocabulary devices 3.3.1Loan wordsBorrowing is the use of loanwords in order to avoid taboos. “It is thought that loanwords have few negative meaning and sensitive associations, so that they sound more neutral
20、 and pleasant.” 10Here is a list of direct expressions and their respective euphemisms.“English French Latin smell scentstink odorfat rotundsick/ill indisposedlie prevaricatespit expectoratesweat perspire” 11 As we all know, in 43 A.D. Roman Empire conquered England and brought Latin to England and
21、Latin became official language in England. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, French became the governmental language in England. But French and Latin were only spoken by the upper classes, and among the low classes English was spoken. The upper classes held the view that words used by themselves we
22、re superior to those used by the low classes. So they used French or Latin words to replace unpleasant English words. Later people accepted the view that French and Latin words are more euphemistic than English words.3.3.2Using uplifting wordsUplifting words can make one feel happier or more hopeful
23、 so they are used quite frequently in modern English as an important means to euphemize things related to the humble social class. The main purpose of using these euphemisms is to make menial jobs sound decent. For example, people replace “waiters” or “waitresses” by “the dining room attendants”, “l
24、andscape worker” by “landscape architect”, “garbage man” by “sanitary engineer”, and substitute “butcher” with “meat technologist”. Generally speaking, in forming euphemism the rule of using words that are easy on the ears is observed for the purpose of consolation. Through using uplifting words, th
25、e embarrassing facts are embellished and no longer unpleasant.33.3Using vague words or expressionsIn modern western countries, vague words or expressions are used in almost all the fields. “If a neighboring girl has a child before marriage, people will comment like this: She has an accident. The wor
26、d accident is very vague. If a person came across a disaster and died, people will also use accident to describe his situation. They may say: He has met with an accident.” 12In school a student may say to a teacher: “Sorry! I have to do my business” when he wants to go to the washing room. Besides,
27、“a man of bad taste” is called “a man of doubtful taste”; and “homosexual” is replaced by “queer”. “It is no wonder that euphemism is named weasel words.”13 3.3.4 Using country namesNames of some countries are used to substitute uncomfortable things. For example, “Dutch courage” replaces “weak courage”, that is, courage that comes from drinking alcohol; and “Dutch uncle” is for
