1、linguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to linguistics 1. Why study language and learn linguistics?Do you agree or not agree with the following views? Why or why not?1) language is a means of communication.2) Language has a form-meaning correspondence.3) English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.4) L
2、anguage operates by rules.5) Everyone speaks a dialect.6) Languages slowly change.7) Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them,Examples:1) A (an American):Hello!B (a Cantonese):黑佬。2）你家的旺才爱喝咕噜噜。/狗go; cowhide靠害； seafood-?3）小李和小范在谈论小刘时，小刘来了。小李说：“说曹操曹操就到。”请选择谁到了：A. 小
3、李 B .小刘 C .小范 D.曹操4)大山：我刚到北京时发现你们中国人很自大！ 姜昆：何以见得？大山：因为我在很多办公大楼上看到“中国人民很(银)行”、“中国农业很(银)行”、“中国工商很(银)行”、“中国建设很(银)行”等等，反正什么都行！姜昆：！5）who am I? /我是谁？ 6）坐在船上看郊区，越看越美丽。 7）堂客/贱内夫人/姨太太太爱人老婆 8）五讲四美三热爱/邓论/江选(三个代表)/胡说(三为学说) 12 What is language? To give the barest of definition, language is means of verbal commun
4、ication. Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.13 Design features of language(语言的本质特征)131 Arbitrariness(任意性特征) It refers to the
5、 fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(discussed first by Saussure).No connection will be established between the sound and its meaning.Examples: 1)/buk/-shu; I哀；water-H2O-shui(水)；sit down，please.锡啖先啦！ 2）哀，哀，哀，我是扮演普金。3)I, I, I was born in Beijing.Some
6、 exceptions(onomatopoeia):4) cuckoo/bang/neigh/mew5) 泉水叮咚，泉水叮咚，泉水叮咚响。According to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. Example: 不怕辣/怕不辣/辣不怕。132 Duality(二重性):Soundswordssentencestexts By “Duality” is meant the property of having two le
7、vels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. In simple words, Duality refers to the fact that language is organized in terms of two levels of structures: the lower structure
8、-elements without meaning, such as “ f ,o,g,d”, but they can be used to form some meaningful words: “fog ,dog ,god” and so on. Higher structure -infinite number of meaningful units which are composed of elements of lower level, such as ly,-ism etc. So, we can have such a sentence “God blesses the lo
9、vely dog in the fog”.133 Creativity(创造性) It means we can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful sentences: eg. S+V+O; SNP+VP. eg. The students learn linguistics.134 Displacement(移位性)It means that language can be used to talk about things real or imaged in the p
10、ast , present and future. Example: carry coals to Newcastle/ 情人眼里出西施。15. Functions of language Question: 1) What is Jakosons view about the “functions of language”?2) What is Hallidayan theory on language?151 Informative (信息功能) language can be used to pass information and give information.Example: 1
11、) 昨晚广州城雷雨交加，一女大学生在二沙岛被雷电击中身亡！ 2）Twins 成员被偷拍一事在香港闹得满城风雨。3）山雨欲来风满楼。4）经历了那么多的风风雨雨，这算得了什么？5)Windy ,are you OK？Rainy is waiting for you ！ 152Interpersonal function(人际功能) This function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addressers attitude
12、toward what he speaks or writes about.Example: 1)老蒋/介石兄/蒋校长/蒋中正/蒋介石/蒋家王朝；姓蒋的/honey/打令 Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.Example: 1)TMD，阿扁真NB!A钱A到机要费里啦！ 2)球场响起了“Diu 裁判/雄起” 的声音。/海边岛？海里岛！3) 天天都吃面，只吃一点点。4) 你是哪里人？我是fu 北人。注：代词的使用可反映人际关系的亲疏，如：
13、4）We are convinced that this book supplies a long-felt want. 5) May we go now ,sir? 6) Shall we sit together, Mary?8) Now, we must be a brave girl and stop crying.9) 一位女客人来访，来访结束后，男主人恰恰有事外出，便和女客人一起离开。 男主人（对其妻）：我们走了。 女主人（勃然大怒）：哪里去？！153.Performative(行事功能) language can be used to do things or perform a
14、ctions.Examples：（命题内容相同的句子分别实施五种不同的以言行事行为 ）1) Will John leave the room?(询问)2) John will leave the room.（预测）3) John, will leave the room.（请求或命令）4) Would that John left the room.（愿望）5) If John will leave the room., I will leave also.（假设）154. Emotive function (感情功能) Language can be used to express ones
15、 emotion.Example: 1) US President candidate :In order to provide more jobs for Americans in the following years, George W .Bush needs to change another job in 2004. 2) 据说我省某前任省长到梅州视察雁南飞茶园后，说的第一句话是“真他妈的漂亮！” 155. Phatic communion(交感性谈话) It refers to the social interaction of language ,which can help d
16、efine and maintain interpersonal relations. Example:1) (在洗手间)A：你也在这？B：是啊。 2）A：好久不见，发福啦！ B：是吗？你身材还是这么FIT！ 156Recreational function(娱乐性功能) Language can be used for entertainment,eg. 1)（刘三姐）：什么水面打跟斗咧？. 2）（曾志伟）：TVB的B呀！B仔个仔呀. Practice: We are here./语言学的学157. Metalingual function(元语言功能) It refers to the f
17、act that language can be used to talk about itself. We have “metalinguage” (纯理语言),such as “finite verb, independent clause,地etc.16. What is linguistics? Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or ,alternatively, as the scientific study of language.17. Main branches of linguistics17
18、1.Phonetics(语音学)-It studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds ,words and connected speech, etc.172.Phonogy (音系学)-It studies the rules governing the structure ,d
19、istribution ,and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.173.Morphology(形态学)-It studies the internal organization of words and the minimal units of meaning morphemes(语素) and word-formation processes.174.Syntax(句法学)-It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English se
20、ntences, eg. Chinese fur coat175.Semantics(语义学)-It examines how meaning is encoded in a language.176.Pragmatics(语用学)-It is the study of meaning in context.18. Important distinctions in linguistics181.Descriptive vs. prescriptive(描写式和规定式) “To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say th
21、at the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms ,of correctness.”Example: The two boys looked at one another suspiciously.182.Synchronic VS Diachronic(共时和历时) A synchronic
22、description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation .Saussurses Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.Question:康熙大词典是共时还是历时词典？183.Langue VS Parole(语言和言语)Langue-It refers to the language system shared by a community of speakers, and is usually c
23、ontrasted with parole, which is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.184.Competence VS performanceCompetence-A term used in linguistics,and esp. in Generative Grammar ,to refer to a persons knowledge of this language, the system of rules which he has mastered so
24、 that he is able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences , and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities, Its an idealized conception of language, which is seen as in opposition to the notion of performance ,the specific utterances of speech.Performance-It refers to langu
25、age seen as a set of specific utterances produced by native-speaker as encountered in a corpus. The utterances of performance will contain features irrelevant to the abstract rule system, such as hesitations and unfinished structures, arising from the various psychological and social difficulties ac
26、ting upon the speaker (e.g, lapses of memory ,or biological limitations, such as pauses being introduced through the need to breathe ).Example:(某位高级领导开会发言)这个，这个，这个，.饱受酒精考验的油袖干部永睡不醒.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds21.Speech production and perception The study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each d
27、ealing with one part of the process:1) Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）:the study of the production of speech sounds.2) Accoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.3) Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)：Its concerned with the perception of speech sounds.22Spe
28、ech organsThey refer to the articulatory apparatus of human being which contains several important areas: lungs, throat, mouth(oral cavity) and nose(nasal cavity). The airstream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities and so various sounds are produced.23.Classification o
29、f English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation . In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types:Stops:(塞音) 【p】【b】【t】【d】Fricatives:
30、(擦音)【f】【v】【s】【z】【 】【 】【 】【3 】【h】Affricates:(塞擦音)【 】【 】Liquids:(流音)【l】【r】also called “retroflex”.Nasals:(鼻音)【m】【n】【 】Glides(半元音/音渡)【w】【j】sometimes called “semivowels” In terms of place of articulation ,the English consonants can be classified in to the following types:Bilabial:(双唇音) 【p】【b】【m】【w】Labio
31、dental:(唇齿音) 【f】【v】Dental:(齿音)【 】【 】Alveolar:( 齿龈音)【t】【d】【s】【z】【n】【l】【r】Palatal:(腭音)【 】【 】【 】【 】【j】Velar:(软腭音) 【k】【g】【 】Glottal:(喉音) 【h】24. Classification of English vowelsVowels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue ,the openness of the mouth ,the shape of the lips ,and the length of the vowels.According to the position of the tongue:Front vowels: 【i：】【i】【e】【 】【a】Central vowels:【 】【 】【 】Back vowels:【u：】【u】【a：】【 】【 】According to the openness of the mouth:Close vowels: 【i：】【i】【u：】【u】Semi-close: 【e】【 】Semi-open: 【 】【 】Open: 【a】【a：】【 】【 】【 】According to the sh
